John S. Ott
Portland State University
HST 354U - Early Medieval Europe, 300-1100
(Copyright 2020, 2021, 2024)
 

Reading Guide 2:

Week II: Athanasios of Alexandria, Life St. Antony; Salvian of Marseilles, On the Judgment of God;
Palladius, The Lausiac History (On Melania the Elder)

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Week II. The Later Roman Empire

Athanasios of Alexandria, Life of St. Antony (composed ca. 356-373 C.E.)

The Life of St. Antony, written originally in Greek by the bishop Athanasios of Alexandria (born ca. 296/8, r. 328-373 C.E.), details the lifetime of one of the greatest of the early Christian ascetics to flee to the deserts of Egypt. Antony, born in 251, died in 354 after an extraordinary lifetime of some 105 years. Athanasios wrote this biography shortly after Antony's death, between 356-373 C.E, at the request of some of Antony's fellow ascetics. The success of the biography (or, more accurately, hagiography, the biography of a holy person) was rapid. It was diffused across the eastern and western Mediterranean worlds, and soon translated from Greek into Latin by Evagrius of Antioch, a prominent churchman of the fourth century who, like Athanasios of Alexandria, enjoyed close contacts with the leading intellectuals and writers of his age. The Life of St. Antony's popularity endured in the Middle Ages and beyond.

As for Athanasios himself, his career was checkered and dominated in many respects by his conflicts with Arian Christians, who enjoyed a powerful following in Alexandria and elsewhere (the intellectual founder of this Christian sect, Arius, was from Alexandria). Athanasios was present at the 325 Council of Nicaea, and staked his beliefs to the creed of the "orthodox" (Nicene) Christian party.  Elected bishop of Alexandria in 328, he set himself against the Arians and other Christian sects, but ran into political opposition which led to his exile to Trier by Emperor Constantine I.  Although allowed to return briefly to his diocese after Constantine's death in 337, Athanasius's expulsion was confirmed by Constantius II (r. 337-361), who ruled the eastern portion of the Empire from Constantinople after his father's death. Constantius II was an Arian; Athanasius therefore bided his time in Rome under the auspices of Constantius's brother, Constans. Constantius's death in 361 permitted Athanasius' return to Alexandria, but he retreated to the deserts of Upper Egypt during Julian's brief reign (361-63) and again during the rule of Emperor Valens, also an Arian.  During his many long exiles (which totaled something like 17 years), he wrote numerous treatises and letters against the Arians and Arian beliefs. Athanasius would be recognized as a saint by the Latin and Greek churches following his death in 373.

The Life of Antony is quite long; we are, however, limiting ourselves to the Prologue and first twelve chapters, which focus on his conversion to Christianity, early ascetic practice, and initial retreat into the desert. As you read, consider the following:

(1) What kinds of images and metaphors does Athanasius use to describe Antony's experiences of religious conversion and meditation?  How do these images depict the process of ascetic withdrawal?
(2) What is Antony's attitude toward wealth and worldly honor/power?  How does Athanasios demonstrate it in the text, and why do you think this theme would have been of concern to him?
(3) What kind of person do you think the text's author, Athanasios, was?  For whom and for what purpose(s) do you think the Life of St. Antony was written?  How can you tell?
(4)  What are the limitations and strengths of hagiography as a historical source?

Palladius of Galatia, The Lausiac History (composed 419-420)

Palladius was a monk, and later bishop, and a dedicated member of the eastern Christian church. In the late 380s, he traveled -- like many others -- to Egypt to meet and study with the many monastics (men and women both) who had settled in the Egyptian deserts to lead solitary lives, following the example of Antony. The Lausiac History was written and named for a court chamberlain of the Emperor Theodosius II (r. 402-450), Lausus. Composed in Greek, Palladius' collection of biographies and edifying stories about the early "desert fathers and mothers" became quite popular and was translated into other languages. The figure at the center of our readings from The Lausiac History is Melania, called "the Elder" because she is sometimes confused with another Melania, her grand-daughter, who was also quite famous in her time -- and whom scholars refer to as "the Younger." BOTH Melanias were incredibly wealthy. Born around 350 in Spain, Melania the Elder was the daughter of a Roman consul, a high-ranking official appointed by the emperor. Married in her early teens and widowed at the age of 22, she converted to Christianity following the death of her husband and two her three sons. She then moved to the Egyptian desert and later to Jerusalem, where she founded two religious houses on the Mount of Olives. She distributed much of her wealth in support of Christian causes, and was well connected to Christian intellectuals throughout the Mediterranean. She died in ca. 410/17.

(1) How does Melania use and distribute her wealth?
(2) How does Palladius characterize her role in the Christian communities of the east in the fourth century?
(3) To whom is she connected? How does her high social background inform her activities and Palladius' description of her?

Salvian of Marseilles, On the Judgment of God (composed 440s C.E.)

Salvian (c. 400-480) was born in what is now western Germany, perhaps in the imperial cities of Trier or Köln (Cologne). He appears to have been educated in law and married a high-ranking noblewoman who came from a pagan family. He decided with his wife to pursue a religious life after the birth of their daughter, however, and the family retreated to the island monastic community of Lérins, off the southern coast of Gaul (France). The monastery there served as a training ground for many subsequent Christian intellectuals and bishops (including Martin of Tours, whom we meet later). Salvian later moved to Marseilles, nearby, and became a priest. In addition to a number of letters and a treatise against avarice which he wrote under a pseudonym, he composed On God's Judgment in the 440s. The work offers a severe indictment of Roman mores, conduct, and leadership.

(1) How does Salvian describe the source of the woes the Roman Empire is facing? What language does he use to depict officials responsible for tax collection? How, by contrast, does he characterize Roman life under the "barbarians" (Germanic kings and chieftains)?
(2) This is a moralizing treatise; how might that affect our interpretation of its contents and depiction of fifth-century Roman life? Does Salvian paint a reliable picture of life in the provinces? Why or why not?