Public Law

Public Law, Policy, and Public Administration

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Trump Administration Releases FY 2026 Budget Proposal and Supporting Materials
May 5, 2025. The White House has released part of the the President's Budget of the United States for FY 2026 and related materials, but several key pieces are not yet published, including agency budget-in-brief documents. Usually, the White House issues its budget proposal much earlier in the year and, when it does, it also provides the Budget Appendix, the Budget Analytic Perspectives document, and the Federal Credit Supplement, among other items. Also, the executive agencies usually publish at the same time as these releases their so-called Budget-in-Brief documents which provide more detailed information on previous year spending, current year spending, and next year's requested funding by program and major organizational units. Those are not yet available. (They will be posted on this webpage under the Budget and Finance tab in the menu of the top of the page.) Currently, the Office of Management and Budget has released some items proposed by the Trump Administration for FY 2026. These are provided below.
   The budget request is not in the standard form of document provided by previous administrations of both parties, but a letter to the Chair of the Senate Committee on Appropriations with some 43 pages of spreadsheets attached to that.
   "President's Fiscal Year 2026 Discretionary Budget Request."
   "Overview: President Trump's Fiscal Year 2026 Discretionary Funding Request."
   Access the Office of Management and Budget Budget Webpage with these items and what the administration terms "fact sheets" on aspects of their proposals.

Executive Directives Issued by President Trump Since Taking Office
Updated May 5, 2025. Change to webpage. The page will continue to post the current administration's executive orders, proclamations, presidential memoranda, and national security directives issued by President Trump since taking office in January. However, for ease of accessing these and other materials, there is a new section to this webpage entitled Presidential Directives which can be accessed by selecting the Presidential Directives tab from the menu at the top of the page. Presidential Directives.

U.S. District Court Sees Probable Cause to Find Federal Government Officials in Contempt of Court for Violation of His Order Halting Deportation to Mega-prison in El Salvador
April 22, 2025. Judge James E. Boasberg of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia today issued a memorandum opinion and order in J.G.G. v. Trump, concerning the Trump administration's actions sending two plane loads of persons to a prison in El Salvador after the district court had issue an order against the action setting forth the Judge's first steps in finding the officials involved likely committed criminal contempt of court. Just Boasberg wrote in part: "On the evening of Saturday, March 15, 2025, this Court issued a written Temporary Restraining Order barring the Government from transferring certain individuals into foreign custody pursuant to the Alien Enemies Act. At the time the Order issued, those individuals were on planes being flown overseas, having been spirited out of the United States by the Government before they could vindicate their due-process rights by contesting their removability in a federal court, as the law requires. Trump v. J.G.G..... Rather than comply with the Court’s Order, the Government continued the hurried removal operation. Early on Sunday morning--hours after the Order issued--it transferred two planeloads of passengers protected by the TRO into a Salvadoran mega-prison. As this Opinion will detail, the Court ultimately determines that the Government's actions on that day demonstrate a willful disregard for its Order, sufficient for the Court to conclude that probable cause exists to find the Government in criminal contempt." Memorandum Opinion at 1. He also issued an order along with the opinion requiring the government to take steps to purge the contempt by April 23 or identify "the individual(s) who, with knowledge of the Court's classwide Temporary Restraining Order, made the decision not to halt the transfer of class members out of U.S. custody on March 15 and 16, 2025."
Read the Memorandum Opinion.
Read the Order.

Supreme Court Rejects Trump Administration Efforts to Block Lower Court Orders to Restore FLow of US AID
March 5, 2025. In a brief opinion in U.S. Department of State v. AIDs Vaccine Advocacy Coalition, a five person majority of the U.S. Supreme Court has rejected the Trump Administration's application to vacate a district court temporary restraining order mandating that the administration restore disbursements of funds appropriated for U.S. Agency for International Development programs. "The application is denied. Given that the deadline in the challenged order has now passed, and in light of the ongoing preliminary injunction proceedings, the District Court should clarify what obligations the Government must fulfill to ensure compliance with the temporary restraining order, with due regard for the feasibility of any compliance timelines." The Trump administration had halted those payments. Justice Alito issued an opinion for the four dissenters.
   Read the Opinion.
   Read the District Court's Order.
   Read Executive Order 14169, "Reevaluating and Realigning United States Foreign Aid," 90 Fed. Reg. 8619 (Jan. 20, 2025).
   Read the Complaint in the Case.
   Read the Trump Administration's Application to Vacate the District Court order--With Appendices on Lower Court and other Items.

U.S. District Court Issues Opinion Again Special Counsel Firing
March 3, 2025. Judge Amy Berman Jackson issued her ruling on Saturday finding that the president's decision to fire the Special Counsel violated statute and that the statutory "for cause" protection that allowed the Special Counse to be terminated "only for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office" The Special Counsel may be removed by the President only for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office. 5 U.S.C. § 1211(b).was not unconstitutional. In so doing, she rejected the administration's claim that the Supreme Court's rulings in Seila Law LLC v. CFPB, 591 U.S. 197 (2020) and Collins v. Yellen, 594 U.S. 220, 256 (2021) meant that any such for cause requirements unconstitutionally interfered with the powers of the president, concluding that these cases did not give the president the kind of "broad bruch" authority he claimed. Dellinger v. B
At this point, the expectation is that the administration will seek review in the Supreme Court and ask the Court to overturn Humphrey’s Executor v. United States, 295 U.S. 602 (1935), the key precedent in the area of protection for statutory independence of some officials.
Read the Memorandum Opinion.

New York Growers Sue USDA for Purging Climate Change Information from Agency Website
A nonprofit organization of growers that works to develop a regional sustainable food production and marketing system based in Binghamton, New York, joined by two environmental advocacy organizations, has filed suit in U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, challenging the U.S. Department of Agriculture's removal of climate change related material from its websites which, in turn, also were interconnected with other key data and program information on farming needed by growers. The complaint charges that the USDA's action violate the Administrative Procedure Act, the Freedom of Information Act, and the Paperwork Reduction Act. For more information and documents, see the Sustainable Development page of this website.

Federal District Court Issues Preliminary Injunction Against Trump Orders Banning "DEI"
February 22, 2025.On Friday, Judge Adam B. Abelson issued a preliminary injunction against the Trump administration in a case brought by the National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education (NADOHE) and the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) charging the Executive Orders 14151 and 14173 issued by President Trump banning what the administration called "DEI" or "DEIA" programs or policies and threatening those receiving federal grants or contracts with loss of funding if they did not do what the administration demanded. For more information and key documents, see the Civil Rights page of this website.

Federal Judge Issues Enforcement Order on Ending the Spending Freeze
February 10, 2025. John J. McConnell, Jr., Chief Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island, who had originally ordered a halt to the Trump Administration's funding freeze, today issued an enforcement order at the request of the 22 states and the District of Columbia who had launched the original case. Judge McConnell wrote in part: "The Defendants issued a broad, categorical, all-encompassing directive freezing federal funding. The plain language of the TRO entered in this case prohibits all categorical pauses or freezes in obligations or disbursements based on the OMB Directive or based on the President's 2025 Executive Orders.1 The Defendants received notice of the TRO, the Order is clear and unambiguous, and there are no impediments to the Defendants' compliance with the Order." Order at 3. Because of that, and citing the Supreme Court's opinion in Maness v. Meyers, 419 U.S. 449, 458-59 (1975), he ordered that the administration "must immediately restore funding...." Id. at 4-5.
   Read the Enforcement Order.
   Read the January 31, 2025 Temporary Restraining Order Against the Freeze.
   Read the Original Complaint in the Funding Case.
   Read the January 27 OMB Memo on the Freeze.

Federal Judge Issues Restraining Order on DOGE Access to Treasury Computer System
February 10, 2025. U.S. District Court Judge Paul A. Engelmayer of the Southern District of New York issued an emergency order on Saturday, blocking Trump administration's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) personnel from accessing a key Treasury Department computer system containing large quantities of sensitive data about individuals and organizations and to destroy any materials they had downloaded from that system. A number of state attorneys general had already complained about the administration's actions, but the administration stated that its people had read-only access to the material. The plaintiffs charged that in itself that was a violation of several provisions of law.
   Judge Engelmayer ordered in part that: "defendants are (i) restrained from granting access to any Treasury Department payment record, payment systems, or any other data systems maintained by the Treasury Department containing personally identifiable information and/or confidential financial information of payees, other than to civil servants with a need for access to perform their job duties within the Bureau of Fiscal Services who have passed all background checks and security clearances and taken all information security training called for in federal statutes and Treasury Department regulations; (ii) restrained from granting access to all political appointees, special government employees, and government employees detailed from an agency outside the Treasury Department, to any Treasury Department payment record, payment systems, or any other data systems maintained by the Treasury Department containing personally identifiable information and/or confidential financial information of payees; and (iii) ordered to direct any person prohibited above from having access to such information, records and systems but who has had access to such information, records, and systems since January 20, 2025, to immediately destroy any and all copies of material downloaded from the Treasury Department's records and systems...." Order at 3. He also included an order for the defendants to appear before Judge Jeannette A. Vargas on Friday, February 14 to show cause "why an order should not be issued pursuant to Rule 65 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure preliminarily enjoining the defendants during the pendency of this action from granting to political appointees, special government employees, and any government employee detailed from an agency outside the Treasury Department access to Treasury Department payment systems or any other data maintained by the Treasury Department containing personally identifiable information." Id. at 2-3. Judge Vargas has now been assigned to hear the main case, on the same evening as this emergency order was issued..
   On Friday, the New York Attorney General had filed a Request for an Emergency Temporary Order, charging that there was evidence that the administration had far greater access and may even have altered software for the account. The request stated in part: "Virtually unfettered access to BFS payment systems was granted to at least one 25-year-old DOGE associate, ***, who, on information and belief, had the authority to view or modify numerous critical files. Indeed, reports indicate that *** had administrative privileges over the BFS payment system's code, giving him the ability to alter user permissions and "read and write" code--even if the associate had "read-only" access to the system's data. *** has since resigned from DOGE after being linked to racist social media posts." Request, at 3-4. The request went on to assert violations of a number of statutes and the Administrative Procedure Act. The 19 states involved are Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Wisconsin.
   Read the Emergency Order.
   Read the Complaint in the Case Filed by the Attorney General of New York on Behalf of the 19 States Seeking the Order.

Trump Administration Files Suit Against Chicago and Illinois Sanctuary Policies
February 6, 2025. The Department of Justice today filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois against Illinois and Chicago officials and policies, specifically including the Way Forward Act, TRUST Act, Welcoming City Act, and Cook County, Ill. Ordinance 11-O-73 which DOJ asserts "interfere with and discriminate against the Federal Government’s enforcement of federal immigration law in violation of the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution." There are three counts in the complaint allegeding that these policies and the actions of state and local officials are preempted under that provision of the constitution and that they violate the supremacy clause by interfering with federal action. For more information and key documents, see the Refugees and Immigrants page of this website.

District Court Issues TRO to Halt Transgender Prisoner Transfer Directed by Trump Executive Order
February 6, 2025.U.S. District Court Judge Royce Lamberth has issued a temporary restraining order, blocking the Bureau of Prisons from moving transgender women from women's correctional facilities to men's facilities, which was being done pursuant to an executive order issued by President Trump. For more information and relevant documents, see the Civil Rights page of this website.

Trump Administration Freezes Federal Grant Funds
January 28, 2025. The Trump administration has mandated that federal agencies stop grant and loan payments pending a review during which the administration will review them to determine which of them may not be consistent with the executive orders issued to this point by the president. The OMB memorandum to all executive agencies and departments states in part: "This memorandum requires Federal agencies to identify and review all Federal financial assistance1 programs and supporting activities consistent with the President's policies and requirements. For example, during the initial days of his Administration, President Donald J. Trump issued a series of executive orders.... To implement these orders, each agency must complete a comprehensive analysis of all of their Federal financial assistance programs to identify programs, projects, and activities that may be implicated by any of the President's executive orders. In the interim, to the extent permissible under applicable law, Federal agencies must temporarily pause all activities related to obligation or disbursement of all Federal financial assistance, and other relevant agency activities that may be implicated by the executive orders, including, but not limited to, financial assistance for foreign aid, nongovernmental organizations, DEI, woke gender ideology, and the green new deal. This temporary pause will provide the Administration time to review agency programs and determine the best uses of the funding for those programs consistent with the law and the President's priorities. The temporary pause will become effective on January 28, 2025, at 5:00 PM." There are exceptions for Medicare, Social Security, and some other assistance programs going to individuals.
Read the OMB Memorandum.

Trump Administration Summarily Fires Inspectors General
January 25, 2025. The White House issued e-mails to Inspectors General in several departments of government Thursday evening terminating them from their positions. (The Washington Post reports the number as 15. It was the first media source to report the action.) The Chairperson of the Council of the Inspectors General on Integrity and Efficiency (CIGIE), Hannibal 'Mike' Ware, immediately wrote to Sergio Gor, Director of Presidential Personnel, objecting to the action and warning that the way it was done violated the Securing Inspector General Independence Act of 2022 (Title LII, Subtitle A, of P.L. 117-263, 136 Stat. 2395, 3222). He asserted that the language of the e-mail which he quoted in his letter "due to changing priorities, your position as Inspector General . . . is terminated, effective immediately" violated the provision of that legislation which requires that the "President must notify Congress 30 days prior to removal of an IG and provide 'substantive rationale, including detailed and case-specific reasons' for such removal." This requirement appears in 5 U.S.C. §403(b).
   Speaking in support of passage of the Securing Inspector General Independence Act in May 2021, Senator Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa), long a supporter of inspectors in general and of this legislation as central to accountability in government, noted: "It helps assure Congress and the public that the termination isn't based on politics, but on real problems with the IG's ability to carry out their mission." Senator Grassley is also Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee.
   Read the Ware Letter.
   Read the Securing Inspector General Independence Act of 2022 at 5 U.S.C. §403.
   Read Grassley's Statement on the Securing Inspector General Independence Act.
   See the Washington Post story by by David Nakamura, Lisa Rein, and Matt Viserreporting the action.

Federal Court Issues Temporary Restraining Order Against Trump Executive Order on Citizenship
January 23, 2025. Judge John C. Coughenour of the Federal District Court for the Western District of Washington has issued a temporary restraining order against an executive order issued by President Trump on January 20, seeking to reject birthright citizenship in the United States. The case was brought by the states of Washington, Arizona, Illinois, and Oregon. In his order, Judge Coughenour, a Reagan appointee, wrote that "there is a strong likelihood that plaintiffs will succeed on the merits of their claims that the Executive Order violates the Fourteenth Amendment and the Immigration and Nationality Act."
   Read the Temporary Restraining Order.
   Read the Executive Order.
   Read the Attorney General of Washington's Motion for the Temporary Restraining Order.

New Administration Quickly Changes Website
January 20, 2025. As all other recent administrations have, minutes after the Trump administration came to office they changed the White House website immediately after the new president took the oath of office. At this point, the new administration's site has little content. Most recent administrations, including the George W. Bush White House, the Obama administration, and the Biden administration, had a substantial body of information uploaded quickly, but the first Trump administration rolled out material more slowly. If this administration follows that approach, the new administration is likely to be developing its web presence in the near future. Since the President-Elect indicated an intention to sign a large number of presidential directives immediately upon taking office, it is likely that those materials will begin appearing on the new White House website shortly.
   The National Archives has now included on its webpage for archived presidential materials of former presidents the first part of the Biden materials to be archived, which is the Biden administration White House website (see link below).
   Access the White House website.
   Access the Archived Biden White House website.
   Access the National Archives Website with information on the archived websites of administrations going back to the Clinton years.

Presidential Appointments that Require Senate Confirmation
December 30, 2024. In 2021, the Congressional Research Service published a report, prepared by Christopher M. Davis and Michael Greene, detailing the positions for which the president can make political appointments subject to Senate confirmation. That report also indicated which committees are to address which appointees. Finally, it contains an appendix listing positions that had at an earlier time required confirmation, but not longer did.
Read the Report.

EPA Issues Final Rules Banning Trichloroethylene and Perchloroethylene
December 9, 2024. The Environmental Protection Agency today issued final rules banning Trichloroethylene (TCE) and Perchloroethylene (PERC), two carcinogenic chemicals widely present in the environment. For more information and documents on this action, see the Sustainable Development page of this website.

D.C. Circuit Upholds TikTok Ban
December 6, 2024. The D.C. Circuit today issued its opinion in TikTok Inc. v. Merrick Garland, rejecting the challenge by TikTok to the ban on that platform scheduled to take place on January 19. The Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act, P.L. 118-50, was signed on April 24, 2024 and is the basis for the ban. (It is Division H of a large statute dealing with a range of international matters.) The opinion by Judge Ginsburg for the panel rejected the company's claim that the law and the ban violated the First Amendment. The opinion states at the outset that: "We conclude the portions of the Act the petitioners have standing to challenge, that is the provisions concerning TikTok and its related entities, survive constitutional scrutiny. We therefore deny the petitions." Slip. op. at 7.
   In a separate, but related, matter, state attorneys general from 22 states and the District of Columbia have worked together to file separate enforcement actions against TikTok charging the platform with playing a key "role in the nationwide youth mental health crisis." Oregon Attorney General's Press Release. Those cases involve AGs from Utah, Nevada, Indiana, New Hampshire, Nebraska, Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, and TexasCalifornia, Oregon, New York, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, North Carolina, New Jersey, South Carolina, Vermont, Washington, and the District of Columbia.
   Read the D.C. Circuit Opinion.
   Read the Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act, P.L. 118-50. See Division H of the statute.
   Read the Oregon Attorney General's October 8, 2024 Press Release on the State Cases.

Presidential Transition Resources
December 5, 2024. The process for presidential transitions is governed by the Presidential Transitions Act, originally enacted in 1963, but amended several times since then. The GovInfo.gov site provides the original act as amended through legislation enacted at the end of December 2022. The Congressional Research Service prepared a report for Congress entitled "Presidential Transition Act: Provisions and Funding" last May which explains the key provisions of the act and funding associated with the process.
Read the Presidential Transitions Act of 1963 as Amended through P.L. 117-328, Enacted December 29, 2022.
Read the CRS "Presidential Transition Act: Provisions and Funding" report issued on May 22, 2024.

U.S. Supreme Court Now Well Into Its Work on Its October 2024 Term
December 5, 2024. The U.S. Supreme Court is now well into hearing some of the most controversial cases in its October 2024 that began in October. The Court has issued a lengthy order list as it normally does on the first day of its new term. The current granted and noted lists and other information on the docket as well as the briefs and oral arguments are also available and posted below. The Court has continued live streaming audio of oral arguments launched during COVID closure of the Court building.
   Start of October term Order List October 7, 2024.
   October Term 2024 Granted and Noted List as of November 22, 2024.
The "On the Docket" site that was formerly done through the Medill School of Journalism of Northwestern University is now part of OYEZ project.
   Review the Docket through "Oyez Cases."
SCOTUS Blog provides a wide range of information on the Court, its recent rulings, oral arguments, and docket.
   Review the Docket through SCOTUS Blog.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Oral Arguments page is a good one stop site to find transcripts of oral arguments, schedules, and briefs. The Court is also makes available the audio of its arguments.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Argument Transcripts Page.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Arguments Audio.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Opinions page provides recently issued opinions and previous years as well.
   U.S. Supreme Court Opinions Page.
Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court website. To find briefs, it is necessary to go the Supreme Court "Docket Search" and place the docket number in the search window. The docket sheet comes up with links to posted documents on the sheet.
   Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court Docket Search Page.
SCOTUS Blog provides Briefs and Links to Lower Court Opinions for Cases Pending on the Current Docket.
   Review the Case Documents through SCOTUS Blog.
   Access the Docket Search page.
The U.S. Solicitor General posts briefs filed for the United States in the U.S. Supreme Court.
   Solicitor General U.S. Briefs
Oral Argument Audio, Opinions, and other Supreme Court Information via "SCOTUS Blog."
   Access SCOTUS Blog
Supreme Court Homepage
   Access Supreme Court Homepage

GAO Issues Report on Cybersecurity and Encryption
November 21, 2024. The Government Accountability Office today issued a new report entitled "Future of Cybersecurity: Leadership Needed to Fully Define Quantum Threat Mitigation Strategy" warning of the need to address the danger to encryption tools for cybersecurity in light of the increasing likelihood that quantum computers will threaten the integrity of encryption programs in the foreseeable future. In its Watchblog post on the report, GAO warns, "Experts predict that a quantum computer capable of breaking such cryptography may exist within 10-20 years. Various federal entities have developed documents that inform a national strategy for addressing this threat. But the strategy lacks details and nobody's in charge of implementing it. We recommended the National Cyber Director coordinate the national strategy and use our guidelines for effective national strategies." The report explains that there appear to be three goals emerging that will likely form the basis for this strategy. "(1) standardize post-quantum cryptography, (2) migrate federal systems to that cryptography, and (3) encourage all sectors of the economy to prepare for the threat." Report at 1.
   The GAO points to the "Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act," signed into law in December 2022 as a starting point for the discussion, but also refers to two previous related GAO reports in 2021 (Quantum Computing and Communications: Status and Prospects) and 2023 (Science & Tech Spotlight: Securing Data for a Post-Quantum World) and (Quantum Computing and Communications: Status and Prospects). It also found 16 different international organizations "whose international activities significantly influence the security and governance of cyberspace" and summarized elements of their strategies. Future of Cybersecurity report, at 9.
   Read the Report.
   Read the GAO Watchblog Post on the Report.
   Read the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act, P.L. 117-260.
   Read the 2023 Science & Tech Spotlight: Securing Data for a Post-Quantum World Watchblog post.
   Read the 2023 Science & Tech Spotlight: Securing Data for a Post-Quantum World report.
   Read the 2021 Quantum Computing and Communications: Status and Prospects Watchblog post.
   Read the 2021 Quantum Computing and Communications: Status and Prospects report.

GAO Issues the Second in Its Series of Reports on Generative AI
August 26, 2024. The Government Accountability Office has issued a new report entitled "Artificial Intelligence: Generative AI Training, Development, and Deployment Considerations," the second in a series of reports GAO is preparing on the subject. The report focuses on vulnerabilities in these AI systems and efforts by developers to anticipate and address them. In its Watchblog post on the report GAO notes that: "Primarily, developers recognize that their models are not fully reliable, and that user judgment should play a role in accepting model outputs. In various white papers, model cards, and other documentation, they have noted that despite the mitigation efforts, their models may produce incorrect outputs, exhibit bias, or be susceptible to attacks. Such attacks include prompt injection attacks, jailbreaks, and data poisoning. Prompt injection attacks and jailbreaks rely on text prompt inputs that may change the behavior of a generative AI model that could be used to conduct misinformation campaigns or transmit malware, among other malicious activities. Data poisoning is a process by which an attacker can change the behavior of a generative AI system through manipulation of its training data or process."
   In preparing today's report GAO indicated that it did its work with an eye toward Executive Order 14110, "Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence," issued in October 2023. It also relied on a 2024 report for the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) by Vassilev, Oprea, Fordyce, and Anderson, "Adversarial Machine Learning: A Taxonomy and Terminology of Attacks and Mitigations. (National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD) NIST Artifcial Intelligence (AI) Report, NIST Trustworthy and Responsible AI NIST AI 100-2e2023.
   The first report in the GAO series was issued in June and was entitled "Artificial Intelligence: Generative AI Technologies and Their Commercial Applications."
   Read the GAO Watchblog Post on the AI Training, Development, and Deployment Report issued today.
   Read the AI, Training, and Development Report.
   Read the GAO Watchblog Post on the AI Technologies and Their Commercial Applications Report issued in June.
   Read the AI Technologies and Their Commercial Applications Report issued in June.
   Read the report by Vassilev, Oprea, Fordyce, and Anderson, "Adversarial Machine Learning: A Taxonomy and Terminology of Attacks and Mitigations. (National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD) .
   Read E.O. 14110.

Fifth Circuit Rejects Major Questions Doctrine and Loper Bright Challenges to Department of Labor Rules
September 12, 2024. Although many cases have been brought challenging a range of federal policies in light of the rejection by the Supreme Court of longstanding precedents on judicial deference, the Fifth Circuit recently issues a ruling upholding a Department of Labor rule related to the White Collar Exemption from the requirements of the Fair Labor Standards Act and, in so doing, rejecting challenges brought of the basis of the Loper Bright ruling (overturning the Chevron standard for reviewing agency statutory interpretations) and also the what has come to be known as the Major Questions Doctrine.
Read the Opinion.

GAO Appoints New Members of the Tribal and Indigenous Advisory Council
August 26, 2024. The Government Accountibility Office has announced four new appointments to its Tribal and Indigenous Advisory Council, created in 2022. The new appointees will serve three year terms and include Gail Hatcher, Vice Chairwoman, The Klamath Tribes, Michael Jacobs, Chief, Waccamaw Siouan Tribe of North Carolina, Erica Schenk, Chairwoman, Cahuilla Band of Indians, and Phillip Williams, Council Member, Yurok Tribe. As GAO explains, the Council s made of of members from "Tribal Nations, Alaska Native Corporations, Native Hawaiian communities, and state-recognized tribes." It advises GAO on a wide range of issues and policies.
   Read the GAO Press Release.
   Access GAO's Tribal and Indigenous Advicory Council webpage.
   Access GAOs Tribal and Indigenous Issues Webpage.

Federal District Judge finds Google a Monopoly in Violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
August 6, 2024. Federal District Judge Amit Mehta of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia has issued his memorandum opinion in U.S. v. Google, finding that: "After having carefully considered and weighed the witness testimony and evidence, the court reaches the following conclusion: Google is a monopolist, and it has acted as one to maintain its monopoly. It has violated Section 2 of the Sherman Act. Specifically, the court holds that (1) there are relevant product markets for general search services and general search text ads; (2) Google has monopoly power in those markets; (3) Google's distribution agreements are exclusive and have anticompetitive effects; and (4) Google has not offered valid procompetitive justifications for those agreements. Importantly, the court also finds that Google has exercised its monopoly power by charging supracompetitive prices for general search text ads. That conduct has allowed Google to earn monopoly profits."
Read the opinion.

Supreme Court Recognizes Some Absolute Immunity for Presidents, but Holds that Trump's Claims to Total Immunity Go Beyond What The Court is Willing to Recognize
July 2, 2024. In another 6-3 opinion, Chief Justice Roberts writes for the majority that there are some areas in which presidents have absolute immunity, others that are officials acts and are entitled a presumption of immunity, but others outside of officials acts are not so protected. Justice Sotomayor wrote for the dissenters, finding that the Court has indeed placed presidents above the law.
Read the opinion.

Supreme Court Dramatically Relaxes Statute of Limitations on Administrative Procedure Act Challenges to Agency Action
July 2, 2024. The Supreme Court, once again in a 6-3 opinion, ruled that a business that did not exist when a rule was adopted by an agency nevertheless could later challenge that rule. In do doing the Court found that: "An APA plaintiff does not have a complete and present cause of action until she suffers an injury from final agency action, so the statute of limitations does not begin to run until she is injured." Corner Post v. Bd. of Governors of the Federal Reserve, at 6. Justice Jackson wrote for the three dissenters, finding that: "The flawed reasoning and far-reaching results of the Court's ruling in this case are staggering." Id. at 2, Jackson, J., dissenting.
Read the opinion.

Supreme Court Reverses the Chevron Deference Standard
July 2, 2024. In another 6-3 ruling, the Supreme Court in Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, struck the long-standing Chevron deference standard for judicial review of agency interpretations of standards they are charged to administer. After explaining why the Chevron deference standard has survived for forty years, Justice Kagan, for the dissenters warned: "Today, the Court flips the script: It is now 'the courts (rather than the agency)' that will wield power when Congress has left an area of interpretive discretion. A rule of judicial humility gives way to a rule of judicial hubris. In recent years, this Court has too often taken for itself decision-making authority Congress assigned to agencies. The Court has substituted its own judgment on workplace health for that of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration; its own judgment on climate change for that of the Environmental Protection Agency; and its own judgment on student loans for that of the Department of Education. See, e.g., National Federation of Independent Business v. OSHA, 595 U.S. 109 (2022); West Virginia v. EPA, 597 U.S. 697 (2022); Biden v. Nebraska, 600 U.S. 477 (2023). But evidently that was, for this Court, all too piecemeal. In one fell swoop, the majority today gives itself exclusive power over every open issue--no matter how expertise-driven or policy-laden--involving the meaning of regulatory law. As if it did not have enough on its plate, the majority turns itself into the country's administrative czar. It defends that move as one (suddenly) required by the (nearly 80-year-old) AdministrativeProcedure Act. But the Act makes no such demand. Today's decision is not one Congress directed. It is entirely the majority's choice. And the majority cannot destroy one doctrine of judicial humility without making a laughing-stock of a second. (If opinions had titles, a good candidate for today's would be Hubris Squared.)" Id. at 3, Kagan, J., dissenting.
Read the opinion.

National Science Foundation and Department of Energy Announce First Awards Under the Administration's National AI Research Resource Program
May 13, 2024. The National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Department of Energy have announced the first awards under the National AI Research Resource pilot program designed to allow researchers to access federal state of the art AI capability to support their work. The pilot program is a two-year effort and is part of the administration's AI initiative that began with President Biden's Executive Order 14110 issued in 2023. The NSF explained: "AI holds the potential to accelerate discovery and innovation and help solve critical societal and global challenges. However, many researchers lack the necessary access to the computing, data, software and educational resources needed to fully conduct their research and to train the next generation of researchers. The NAIRR aims to bridge this gap and ensure that AI resources and tools are accessible to the broad research and education communities in a manner that advances trustworthy AI and protects privacy, civil rights and civil liberties. By connecting the research community to needed infrastructure resources, the NAIRR pilot will enable research that advances the frontiers of AI as well as the use of AI to drive breakthroughs in other fields of science and engineering."
   Applications for future awards opened last week and that information is available on the NAIRR program website below.
   Read the NSF Press Release on the NAIRR Program.
   Read Executive Order 14110.
   Access the NAIRR Program Website with Information on Opportunities, Applications, and Awards.
   Access NSF's Webpage Explaining the Program.

Preparing for Supreme Court Oral Argument in Trump Claim of Immunity Case
April 9, 2024. The parties have now submitted their briefs on the merits in No. 23-939 Trump v. United States concerning Mr. Trump's claim to immunity from criminal prosecution in response to the indictment brought against him by the Special Counsel. The oral argument before the Supreme Court is scheduled for April 25. See the post for February 28 on this webpage for more information on the case.
   Read the Special Counsel's Brief.
   Read the Trump Brief.
   Access the Joint Appendix in the case.

Supreme Court Rules on City Manager's Control Over His Private Social Media Page
March 15, 2024. Justice Amy Barret today issued an opinion on behalf of a unanimous U.S. Supreme Court seeking to clarify whether and when a public official's social media page and his control over it was state action or private action and therefore whether his decision to take down posts or even block others from posting constituted a violation of protected speech subject to suits under the civil rights act provision 42 U.S.C. §1983. For more information and the opinion, see the Local Government page of this website.

EU Parliament Adopts Artificial Intelligence Act
March 14, 2024.The European Parliament yesterday voted to approve the Artificial Intelligence Act with 523 votes in favor, 46 against, and 49 abstentions. The act has been under development for some time with complex consultive processes and analyses. The European Commission has explained: "The European AI Strategy aims at making the EU a world-class hub for AI and ensuring that AI is human-centric and trustworthy. Such an objective translates into the European approach to excellence and trust through concrete rules and actions." The new AI Act arrays regulatory requirements according to four classes of AI with some uses banned. As the EU Parliament explained in its news release: "The new rules ban certain AI applications that threaten citizens' rights, including biometric categorisation systems based on sensitive characteristics and untargeted scraping of facial images from the internet or CCTV footage to create facial recognition databases. Emotion recognition in the workplace and schools, social scoring, predictive policing (when it is based solely on profiling a person or assessing their characteristics), and AI that manipulates human behaviour or exploits people's vulnerabilities will also be forbidden." The European Commission provided more information in its announcement of last week, including explanation of the four classes, which include: Unacceptable Risk, High Risk, Limited Risk, and Minimal Risk.
   Read the European Parliament News Release on the Vote.
   Read European Commission "AI" Act News Release March 6 with Additional Links to key documents.
   Access the European Commission's "European Approach to Artificial Intelligence" release.
   Read Artificial Intelligence Act, Final Draft, January 21, 2014.
   Read EU AI Innovation Package.
   Read EU Coordinated Plan on AI.
   Read About the European AI Office and Its Functions.
   Access the EU Artificial Intelligence Act Website.

Biden Administration Releases FY 2025 Budget Proposal and Supporting Materials
March 11, 2024. The White House has released the President's Budget of the United States for FY 2025. The Office of Management and Budget released has released some of the documents, including the president's budget document with his budget message. There are also other key materials, including the "Analytic Perspectives" document which provides the economic and policy assumptions behind the budget, and the "Budget Appendix" which is the document that contains the very detailed information on agency budgets and funds. Also, a number of the executive departments are expected to release their budget-in-brief documents which provide more detailed program by program explanations of past, present, and requested funding. Those documents for the Department of Education, Department of Health and Human Services, and Environmental Protection Agency will be posted as soon as they are available.
   Download the President's Budget of the United States for FY 2025 document, including the President's Message to Accompany the FY 2025 Budget.
   Download the FY 2025 Budget Facts Sheets.
   Access the FY 2025 Budget Appendix -- All detailed information about agencies and funds.
   Access the FY 2025 Budget Analytic Perspectives webpage (economic and budget assumptions).
   Access the FY 2025 Federal Credit Supplement (information on direct loans and loan guarantees by the Federal Government.).
   Access the FY 2025 Supplemental Materials website.
   Access the U.S. Department of Education, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget Summary and Background Information.
   Access the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget-in-Brief.
   Access the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget-in-Brief.
   Access the Office of Management and Budget Budget Webpage.

Supreme Court Overturns Colorado Ruling that Removed Trump from the Ballot
March 4, 2024. Although all members of the U.S. Supreme Court agreed on reversing the Colorado Supreme Court decision that removed Mr. Trump from the ballot in that state under the Fourteenth Amendment, there was a sharp disagreement among the members about the scope of the per curiam opinion. Justice Barrett concurred in part and in the judgment, joining only Parts I and II–B of the per curiam opinion. Justice Sotomayor wrote a strongly worded opinion for herself and Justices Kagan and Jackson, concurring only in the judgment of the Court. The four justices were critical of the majority because on grounds that it went well beyond what was necessary to address the Colorado case.
Read the Opinions.

Supreme Court to Hear Trump's Claim of Immunity
February 28, 2024.The Supreme Court today issued an order indicating it will hear the case involving Mr. Trump's claim of immunity from prosecution. The Court wrote: "The application for a stay presented to The Chief Justice is referred by him to the Court. The Special Counsel's request to treat the stay application as a petition for a writ of certiorari is granted, and that petition is granted limited to the following question: Whether and if so to what extent does a former President enjoy presidential immunity from criminal prosecution for conduct alleged to involve official acts during his tenure in office. Without expressing a view on the merits, this Court directs the Court of Appeals to continue withholding issuance of the mandate until the sending down of the judgment of this Court. The application for a stay is dismissed as moot. The case will be set for oral argument during the week of April 22, 2024. Petitioner's brief on the merits, and any amicus curiae briefs in support or in support of neither party, are to be filed on or before Tuesday, March 19, 2024. Respondent's brief on the merits, and any amicus curiae briefs in support, are to be filed on or before Monday, April 8, 2024. The reply brief, if any, is to be filed on or before 5 p.m., Monday, April 15, 2024." For more information on this case, see the posting below for Febryuary 16, 2024.
   In something unusual for this kind of proceeding, there have been several amicus curiae briefs filed in the Supreme Court. (The full docket sheet for Trump v. United States, No. 23A745, can be accessed through the Court's docket search page at the link below.)
   See the order published today by the Supreme Court.
   Read Trump's Application for a Stay to the Supreme Court.
   Read the U.S. Brief in Opposition to the Application for a Stay.
   Access the Supreme Court Docket Search Page to find the Full Docket Sheet for case No. 23A745 with All Key Documents.

Supreme Court Hears Oral Argument in Social Media Content Moderation Policies
February 26, 2024. The Supreme Court is hearing oral arguments today in cases from Florida and Texas, Moody v. NetChoice, 22-277, and NetChoice v. Paxton, 22-555, involving state statutes prohibiting social media platforms from regulating content, what they refer to as content moderation. The lower courts ruled against the Florida statute, but although the district court halted the Texas action pending the litigation, the Fifth Circuit reversed. These are facial challenges.
   Read the Florida's Brief as Petitioner in 22-277.
   Read the Brief of Respondents NetChoice in 22-277.
   Read the Florida statute S.B. 7072.
   Read the Brief of the United States in Support of Repondents in 22-277 and Petitioners in 22-555.
   Read Brief of Petitioners NetChoice in 22-555 the Texas Case.
   Read the Brief of Respondent Texas Attorney General Paxton in 22-555.
   Read the Texas statute HB20.
   Read the Oral Argument Transcript--Florida Case.
   Read the Oral Argument Audio.
   Read the Oral Argument Transcript--Texas Case.
   Read the Oral Argument Audio.

Alabama Supreme Court Allows Wrongful Death Suits for Destruction of Embryos Raising Questions for Clinicians and Others
February 21, 2024. The Alabama Supreme Court has issued an opinion in which it concludes that, under the Alabama's Wrongful Death of a Minor Act, "Unborn children are 'children' under the Act, without exception based on developmental stage, physical location, or any other ancillary characteristics." LePage v. Center for Reproductive Medicine, at 11. According to the Court, that includes embryos. Therefore, clinics and those who work with embryos now face possible legal action if and when they accidentally or intentional destroy an embryo. For more information and the opinion, see the Heath Care, Disability, and Development page of this website.

Supreme Court Considering Trump Petition for Stay of the Criminal Case in D.C.
February 16, 2024.The Supreme Court has before it a petition (No. 23A745) by former president Donald Trump to issue a stay that would halt the criminal proceedings under an indictment against him in the federal district court in D.C. His attorneys have asked the Court to stay the ruling of the D.C. Circuit panel issued last week denying him immunity from prosecution (see the posting below for February 6) and block further action on starting his criminal trial on a four-count indictment issued by the grand jury at the request of special counsel Jack Smith. They are asking that the Supreme Court stay the lower court ruling to allow more time for them to file a petition in the Supreme Court for certiorari to consider the D.C. Circuit ruling against Trump's claims of immunity from prosecution as a former president. Alternatively, they ask the Court to stay the case until they have can seek an en banc review by the full D.C. Circuit. The special counsel has filed in opposition, arguing that the Court already rejected his earlier request for an expedited ruling on the immunity question in the Supreme Court and contending that there is no basis for any appeal at this time of the D.C. Circuit ruling. The district court issued an extensive opinion on that matter in December and the D.C. Circuit also issued a unanimous and lengthy opinion rejecting the immunity claim last week. Smith asked that if the Court does issue a stay that would prevent the case from going to trial now, it would expedite consideration of the case and schedule arguments in March.
   In something unusual for this kind of proceeding, there have been several amicus curiae briefs filed in the Supreme Court. (The full docket sheet for Trump v. United States, No. 23A745, can be accessed through the Court's docket search page at the link below.)
   Read Trump's Application for a Stay to the Supreme Court.
   Read the U.S. Brief in Opposition to the Application for a Stay.
   Access the Supreme Court Docket Search Page to find the Full Docket Sheet with All Key Documents.

Senate Appears Like to Advance Kids Online Protection Act
February 15, 2024.Senators Richard Blumenthal (D-Conn.) and Marsha Blackburn (R-Tenn.) have announced that they now have 62 co-sponsors in the Senate for passage of a new version of S.1409 the Kids Online Safety Act released today, which is more than needed to overcome a possible filibuster. The proposed legislation follows a long process of hearings including testimony by a range of people from social media companies, parents' groups, and others. There is not currently a companion bill in the House.
   Read the Current Version of S. 1409 released today.
   Access Senator Blackburn's webpage on the bill with materials.
   Access Senator Blumenthal's webpage on the bill with materials.

D.C. Circuit Denies Trump Immunity Claim
February 6, 2024. A U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit panel has rejected former President Donald Trump's claim of immunity from prosecution brought by the Special Counsel, beginning its per curiam opinion by writing: "President Trump was charged in a four-count Indictment as a result of his actions challenging the election results and interfering with the sequence set forth in the Constitution for the transfer of power from one President to the next. Former President Trump moved to dismiss the Indictment and the district court denied his motion. Today, we affirm the denial. For the purpose of this criminal case, former President Trump has become citizen Trump, with all of the defenses of any other criminal defendant. But any executive immunity that may have protected him while he served as President no longer protects him against this prosecution." United States v. Trump, at 3.
   The court continued later after analyzing the several arguments put forward by Trump's counsel for immunity: "Former President Trump lacked any lawful discretionary auithority to defy federal criminal law and he is answerable in court for his conduct." Id. at 30. And it concludes its core argument by explaining that: "We cannot accept former President Trump's claim that a President has unbounded authority to commit crimes that would neutralize the most fundamental check on executive power--the recognition and implementation of election results. Nor can we sanction his apparent contention that the Executive has carte blanche to violate the rights of individual citizens to vote and to have their votes count. At bottom, former President Trump's stance would collapse our system of separated powers by placing the President beyond the reach of all three Branches. Presidential immunity against federal indictment would mean that, as to the President, the Congress could not legislate, the Executive could not prosecute and the Judiciary could not review. We cannot accept that the office of the Presidency places its former occupants above the law for all time thereafter. Careful evaluation of these concerns leads us to conclude that there is no functional justification for immunizing former Presidents from federal prosecution in general or for immunizing former President Trump from the specific charges in the Indictment. In so holding, we act, 'not in derogation of the separation of powers, but to maintain their proper balance.'..." Id. at 40-41.
   Read the Court of Appeals Opinion.
   Read the District Court Opinion.
   Read the Indictment.

Federal Trade Commission Announces Settlements Aimed at Reining in Data Brokers and Others Gathering and Distributing Personal Data
January 18, 2024. The Federal Trade Commission has announced another settlement in its current efforts to constrain data brokers and other firms seeking to gather and share large amounts of private information on consumers and medical care users. Today the FTC announced a settlement with InMarket and on January 9 it announced a settlement in the X-Mode Social and Outlogic case concerning sale of location data charging that the companies "did not fully inform consumers and obtain their consent before collecting and using their location data for advertising and marketing." FTC Press Release
   Access the FTC Press Release on the InMarket Settlement.
   Read the Proposed Order in the InMarket Case.
   Read the Complaint in the InMarket Case.
   Read the FTC Press Release on the Settlement with X-Mode Social and Outlogic on Sales of Location Data.
   Read the Complaint in the X-Mode Social and Outlogic Case.
   Read the Proposed Order in the X-Mode Social and Outlogic Case.

Supreme Court Hears Arguments in Cases Seeking to Overturn the Chevron Deference Doctrine
January 17, 2024. The U.S. Supreme Court today heard oral arguments in two cases in which the challengers to the government actions are asking the Court to overturn the longstanding Chevron doctrine, providing for deference by courts to the interpretations of statutes by administrative agencies charged with their implementation. Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo (No. 22-451) and Relentless v. Department of Commerce (No. 22-1219) challenge requirements imposed on the operators of fishing vessels under the Magnuson-Stevens Act by the National Marine Fisheries Service to pays fees for on-board inspectors of their vessels, but the real core of both cases is the attempt to get the Supreme Court to reject the deference doctrine from Chevron, U.S.A. v. Natural Resources Defense Council that has been controlling law since that case was decided in 1984.
   Access the Docket Sheet for Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo with all briefs and materials.
   Access the Docket Sheet for Relentless v. Department of Commerce with all briefs and materials...
   Read the Transcript of the Oral Argument in Relentless.
   Read the transcript of Oral Argument in Loper Bright.

GAO Issues Major Report on AI in Federal Agencies
December 14, 2023.The Government Accountability Office (GAO) this week issued a major report on Artificial Intelligence (AI) across the federal government, specifically studying 23 agences. As GAO explained: "In this report, GAO reviewed the implementation of AI at major federal agencies. This report examines (1) federal agency reported current and planned uses of AI, (2) the extent to which federal agencies' AI reporting was comprehensive and accurate, and (3) the extent to which federal agencies have complied with selected federal policy and guidance on AI." GAO Watchblog Post. The GAO report offered 35 recommendations. In introducing its post on this one, GAO said that, among other things: "Federal law and guidance have several requirements for agencies implementing AI, but they haven't all been met. For example, there's no government-wide guidance on how agencies should acquire and use AI. Without such guidance, agencies can't consistently manage AI. And until all requirements are met, agencies can't effectively address AI risks and benefits."
   Read the GAO WatchBlog Post on the New Report.
   Read the Full Report.
   Read the "Highlights Pages" of the Report.

Special Counsel Seeks Supreme Court Ruling on Whether Trump is Immune from Prosecution
December 11, 2023.Special Counsel Jack Smith today filed a Petitioner for Certiorari Before Judgment in the U.S. Supreme Court to decide the question: "Whether a former President is absolutely immune from federal prosecution for crimes committed while in office or is constitutionally protected from federal prosecution when he has been impeached but not convicted before the criminal proceedings begin." The Supreme Court promptly issued an order stating: "Petitioner's motion to expedite consideration of the petition for a writ of certiorari before judgment is granted, and respondent is directed to file a response to the petition on or before 4 p.m. (EST) on Wednesday, December 20, 2023." The case is No. 23-624.
   In asking the Court to take the case, the Special Counsel wrote: "This case presents a fundamental question at the heart of our democracy: whether a former President is absolutely immune from federal prosecution for crimes committed while in office or is constitutionally protected from federal prosecution when he had been impeached but not convected before the criminal proceedings begin. The district court rejected respondent's claims, correctly recognizing that former Presidents are not above the law and are accountable for their violations of federal criminal law while in office. . . . It is of imperative public importance that respondent's claims of immunity be resolved by thie Court and that respondent's trial proceed as promptly as possible if his claim of immunity is rejected. Respondent's claims are profoundly mistaken, as the district court held. But only this Court can definitively resolve them. The Court should grant a writ of certiorari before judgment to ensure that it can provide the resolution that this case warrants, just as it did in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 686-687 (1974)."
   Read Petition for the Writ of Certiorari Before Judgment.
   Read the Court's Order.
   Access the Supreme Court Docket page for the case.

Texas Judge Grants Temporary Restraining Order Allowing Emergency Exception to Texas Abortion Ban for Dallas Woman
December 7, 2023.The Center for Reproductive Rights file suit in Travis County court and obtained an order allowing a Dallas woman with severe pregnancy dangers to obtain an abortion as an exception to Texas' near complete abortion ban.
Read the Application for the TRO.
Read the Temporary Restraining Order.

Seventeen Nations Come Together to Create Guidance for Secure AI Development
November 29, 2023. The U.S. Cybersecurity Infrastructure and Security Agency (CISA) and the U.K. National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) have worked with agencies from fifteen other countries to produce a "Guideline for Secure AI Development." The introduction to the guideline explains that this guideline operates from a "secure-by-design" foundation. It goes on to explain that: "AI systems have the potential to bring many benefits to society. However, for the opportunities of AI to be fully realised, it must be developed, deployed and operated in a secure and responsible way. AI systems are subject to novel security vulnerabilities that need to be considered alongside standard cyber security threats. When the pace of development is high--as is the case with AI--security can often be a secondary consideration. Security must be a core requirement, not just in the development phase, but throughout the life cycle of the system. For this reason, the guidelines are broken down into four key areas within the AI system development life cycle: secure design, secure development, secure deployment, and secure operation and maintenance. For each section we suggest considerations and mitigations that will help reduce the overall risk to an organisational AI system development process."
   Access the Guideline for Secure AI Development.
   Read the U.S./U.K. Joint Press Release on the New Guideline.
   Access the Cybersecurity Infrastructure and Security Agency (CISA) Website.

DOD Publishes Its "Responsible AI Toolkit"
November 20, 2023. The Department of Defense Chief Digital & Artificial Intelligence Office (CDAO) has followed last month's publication of President Biden's Executive Order 14110 entitled "Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence" with the DOD release of its Responsible AI Toolkit. The DOD CDAO blog post on the toolkit explains its origins tracing back to a 2020 publication on Ethical Principles for AI at DOD and then to the 2022 Responsible AI Strategy and Implementation Pathway.
   For more information last month's executive order and related materials, See the post on this page for October 31.
   Access DOD's Reponsible AI Toolkit.
   Read DOD's Chief Digital & Artificial Intelligence Office Blog Post About the Toolkit.
   Read DOD's Responsible AI Strategy and Implementation Pathway from 2022.
   Read the Blog Post of February 2021 on "Progress and Future of Responsible AI in the DoD."
   Read DOD's February 2020 Ethical Principles for AI.
   Read Executive Order 14110.
   Access the Chief Digital & Artificial Intelligence Office Website.

Office of Management and Budget Issues Major New Policy Document on Regulatory Analysis
November 13, 2023. The Biden Administration's Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has issued a new circular on regulatory analysis, explaining what is expected of agencies engaged in rulemaking. Circular A-4 Regulatory Analysis. The new circular, is a major change, indeed the first full re-write since the Bush administration's version in 2003, which this new document supersedes. The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs issued a press announcement on November 9 stating that: "While much of Circular A-4--which was originally issued in 2003 and which has not been revised since--has continued to provide helpful guidance for agencies, advances in economics and science have prompted important revisions."
   In its introduction to the new circular, OMB explained its purposes and origins, but also issued at the same time an accompanying document entitled "Circular No. A-4: Explanation and Response to Public Input." The OMB introduction to the new Circular A-4 writes: "This Circular is designed to assist analysts in regulatory agencies by providing guidance on conducting high-quality and evidence-based regulatory analysis--referred to as either 'regulatory analysis' or 'analysis' in this Circular for brevity--and standardizing the way benefits and costs of Federal regulatory actions are measured and reported. Executive Order 12866 of September 30, 1993 (Regulatory Planning and Review) requires agencies to conduct a regulatory analysis for regulatory actions that are significant as defined by Section 3(f)(1) of that Executive Order, as amended, and more generally to assess the benefits and costs of other significant actions. These requirements apply to regulatory actions that rescind or modify existing regulations, as well as to new regulatory actions, and apply to the extent consistent with applicable law. This Circular is intended to aid agencies in their analysis of the benefits and costs of regulations, when such analysis is required, and when agencies undertake such analysis as a matter of discretion. Analysts may find it useful to consult additional supporting information relevant to the materials in this Circular, contemporaneously published in a separate document by OMB, entitled OMB Circular No. A-4: Explanation and Response to Public Input."
   Read the New Circular A-4 on Regulatory Analysis.
   Read OMB's Companion Document to Circular A-4 "OMB Circular No. A-4: Explanation and Response to Public Input."
   Read the OMB Press Announcement of the New Policy Documents on November 9.

President Biden Issues Executive Order on Artificial Intelligence
October 31, 2023. President Biden has issued an Executive Order entitled "Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence." The Fact Sheet issued with the order explains that the executive order addresses a number of components, including: "New Standards for AI Safety and Security; Protecting Americans' Privacy; Advancing Equity and Civil Rights; Standing Up for Consumers, Patients, and Students; Supporting Workers; Promoting Innovation and Competition; Advancing American Leadership Abroad; Ensuring Responsible and Effective Government Use of AI."
   Read the Executive Order.
   Read the Facts Sheet Issued with the Order.
   Remarks on Issuance of AI Executive Order by President and Vice President.

U.S. Supreme Court Begins Work on Its October 2023 Term
October 2, 2023. The U.S. Supreme Court begins its October 2023 term today. The Court has issued a lengthy order list as it normally does on the first day of its new term. The current granted and noted lists and other information on the docket as well as the briefs and oral arguments are also available and posted below. The Court has continued live streaming audio of oral arguments launched during COVID closure of the Court building.
   Start of October term Order List October 2, 2023.
   October Term 2023 Granted and Noted List as of September 29, 2023.
The "On the Docket" site that was formerly done through the Medill School of Journalism of Northwestern University is now part of OYEZ project.
   Review the Docket through "Oyez Cases."
SCOTUS Blog provides a wide range of information on the Court, its recent rulings, oral arguments, and docket.
   Review the Docket through SCOTUS Blog.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Oral Arguments page is a good one stop site to find transcripts of oral arguments, schedules, and briefs. The Court is also makes available the audio of its arguments.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Argument Transcripts Page.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Arguments Audio.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Opinions page provides recently issued opinions and previous years as well.
   U.S. Supreme Court Opinions Page.
Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court website. To find briefs, it is necessary to go the Supreme Court "Docket Search" and place the docket number in the search window. The docket sheet comes up with links to posted documents on the sheet.
   Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court Docket Search Page.
SCOTUS Blog provides Briefs and Links to Lower Court Opinions for Cases Pending on the Current Docket.
   Review the Case Documents through SCOTUS Blog.
   Access the Docket Search page.
The U.S. Solicitor General posts briefs filed for the United States in the U.S. Supreme Court.
   Solicitor General U.S. Briefs
Oral Argument Audio, Opinions, and other Supreme Court Information via "SCOTUS Blog."
   Access SCOTUS Blog
Supreme Court Homepage
   Access Supreme Court Homepage

Fifth Circuit Allows Mefipristone to Remain Available on the Market But With Limitations Pending Likely Supreme Court Review
August 16, 2023. A panel of the Fifth Circuit today issued is ruling on FDA actions taken over time that have made Mefipristone readily available. The Fifth Circuit began by explaining the status of the drug and its response to the district court. "We conclude that the Medical Organizations and Doctors' claim as to the 2000 Approval is likely barred by the statute of limitations. Accordingly, that component of the district court's order must be VACATED. This means that, until final judgment, Mifeprex will remain available to the public under the conditions for use that existed in 2016. We also VACATE the portion of the order relating to the 2019 Generic Approval because the Medical Organizations and Doctors have not shown that they are injured by that particular action. The generic version of mifepristone will also be available under the same conditions as Mifeprex. We AFFIRM the components of the stay order that concern the 2016 Amendments and the 2021 Non-Enforcement Decision. Those agency actions-which generally loosen the protections and regulations relating to the use of mifepristone-will be stayed during the pendency of this litigation. Finally, we note that our holding is subject to the prior order of the Supreme Court, which stayed the district court's order pending resolution of this appeal and disposition of any petition for writ of certiorari." More information on this ruling and the challenges and key elements in the case are presented in the postings from April 7 to April 20 on the Health Care, Disability, and Development page of this website.

Supreme Court Issues Stay, Leaving Biden Administration Rules on Ghost Guns in Place
August 8, 2023. In an order today in the case of Garland v. Vanderstok, a 5-4 majority of the U.S. Supreme Court issued a stay of a district court order vacating a rule issued by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms aimed at ghost guns. The Court's stay will remain in place pending the ruling by the Fifth Circuit and a possible certiorari petition to the Supreme Court. The Court ended its order by noting that: "Justice Thomas, Justice Alito, Justice Gorsuch, and Justice Kavanaugh would deny the application for stay."
   Read the Supreme Court's Stay Order.
   Read the ATF Rule.
   Read the Lower Court Opinions and Orders.

Fifth Circuit Stays Broad District Court Injunction Against Biden Administration Interactions with Social Media Companies
July 14, 2023. A panel of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals today issued a stay of the broad Louisiana federal court injunction against the Biden administration in the social media cases. More more information on the case and the district court ruling, see the post for July 6 below.
Read the Fifth Circuit Stay.

Challenge Launched in Federal Court to Idaho Abortion Travel Ban
July 13, 2023. Legal Action, joined by Stoel Rives, and the Lawyering Project have brought suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Idaho on behalf Lourdes Matsumoto, the Northwest Abortion Access Fund, and the Indigenous Idaho Alliance against Idaho Attorney General Raúl Labrador, seeking a declaratory judgment and an injunction that would block a new statute that would make criminal assisting travel by pregnant minors across state lines to receive abortion services if there was "intent to conceal an abortion from the parents or guardian of a pregnant, unemancipated minor." Idaho Code § 18-623. For more information and documents, see the Healthcare, Disability, and Development page of this website.

EPA Proposes New Standards to Address Lead Levels in Schools and Homes
July 12, 2023. The Environmental Protection Agency had issued proposed rules significantly reducing allowable levels of lead dust and other indicators of lead-based paints. In issuing the proposed rules, EPA wrote: "Today, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a proposal to strengthen requirements for the removal of lead-based paint hazards in pre-1978 buildings and child care facilities, known as abatement activities, to better protect children and communities from the harmful effects of exposure to dust generated from lead paint, advancing President Biden's whole-of-government approach to protecting families and children from lead exposure. If finalized, this rule is estimated to reduce the lead exposures of approximately 250,000 to 500,000 children under age six per year." For more information and documents, see the Health Care, Disability, and Development page of this website.

GAO Provides New Report Providing 13 Key Practices for Evidence-Based Policymaking.
July 12, 2023. The U.S. Government Accountability Office today announced a new report entitled "Evidence-Based Policymaking: Practices to Help Manage and Assess the Results of Federal Efforts" that is a metastudy based on the many studies GAO has done on the subject of evidence-based policymaking. The report recommends "13 key practices" to enhance evidence-based decisions and implementation.
Read the Report.
Read the GAO Watchblog posting on the Evidence-Based Policy.

Federal District Judge in Louisiana Issues Broad Injunction Against Biden Administration Interactions with Social Media Companies
July 6, 2023. Federal District Judge Terry A. Doughty of the Western District of Louisiana had issued a preliminary injunction in a case that blocks efforts by the Biden administration to work with social media companies to address problems of misinformation or disinformation in a case brought by Missouri. That injunction is based on a 155 page Memorandum Ruling on Request of a Preliminary Injunction finding that the plaintiffs are likely to prevail on their claim of First Amendment violations, stating that assertion in extraordinarily strong terms.
Read the Injunction.
Read the Memorandum Ruling on Request for a Preliminary Injunction.

Presidential Directives

Current Administration Executive Orders, Proclamations, Memoranda, and National Security Directives
May 5, 2025. The following new section of the webpage tracks the current president's executive orders, problamations, presidential memoranda, and national security directives. For information on previous administrations see the What's New -- Archives 2006-22 tab in the menu at the top of the page. Also, see the Public Law Resources (tab in the menu at top of the page) under Presidential Executive Orders, Presidential Proclamations and Presidential Memoranda, National Security Directives.

Supreme Court Activity

U.S. Supreme Court Resources
   Start of October term Order List October 7, 2024.
   October Term 2024 Granted and Noted List as of November 22, 2024.
The "On the Docket" site that was formerly done through the Medill School of Journalism of Northwestern University is now part of OYEZ project.
   Review the Docket through "Oyez Cases."
SCOTUS Blog provides a wide range of information on the Court, its recent rulings, oral arguments, and docket.
   Review the Docket through SCOTUS Blog.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Oral Arguments page is a good one stop site to find transcripts of oral arguments, schedules, and briefs. The Court is also makes available the audio of its arguments.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Argument Transcripts Page.
   U.S. Supreme Court Oral Arguments Audio.
The U.S. Supreme Court's Opinions page provides recently issued opinions and previous years as well.
   U.S. Supreme Court Opinions Page.
Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court website. To find briefs, it is necessary to go the Supreme Court "Docket Search" and place the docket number in the search window. The docket sheet comes up with links to posted documents on the sheet.
   Supreme Court Briefs via the Supreme Court Docket Search Page.
SCOTUS Blog provides Briefs and Links to Lower Court Opinions for Cases Pending on the Current Docket.
   Review the Case Documents through SCOTUS Blog.
   Access the Docket Search page.
The U.S. Solicitor General posts briefs filed for the United States in the U.S. Supreme Court.
   Solicitor General U.S. Briefs
Oral Argument Audio, Opinions, and other Supreme Court Information via "SCOTUS Blog."
   Access SCOTUS Blog
Supreme Court Homepage
   Access Supreme Court Homepage

Budget and Finance

Biden Administration Releases FY 2025 Budget Proposal and Supporting Materials
March 11, 2024. The White House has released the President's Budget of the United States for FY 2025. The Office of Management and Budget released has released some of the documents, including the president's budget document with his budget message. There are also other key materials, including the "Analytic Perspectives" document which provides the economic and policy assumptions behind the budget, and the "Budget Appendix" which is the document that contains the very detailed information on agency budgets and funds. Also, a number of the executive departments are expected to release their budget-in-brief documents which provide more detailed program by program explanations of past, present, and requested funding. Those documents for the Department of Education, Department of Health and Human Services, and Environmental Protection Agency will be posted as soon as they are available.
   Download the President's Budget of the United States for FY 2025 document, including the President's Message to Accompany the FY 2025 Budget.
   Download the FY 2025 Budget Facts Sheets.
   Access the FY 2025 Budget Appendix -- All detailed information about agencies and funds.
   Access the FY 2025 Budget Analytic Perspectives webpage (economic and budget assumptions).
   Access the FY 2025 Federal Credit Supplement (information on direct loans and loan guarantees by the Federal Government.).
   Access the U.S. Department of Education, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget Summary and Background Information.
   Access the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget-in-Brief.
   Access the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget-in-Brief.
   Access the Office of Management and Budget Budget Webpage.

Financial Report of the United States Government
April 14, 2025. The Financial Service Bureau of the Department of the Treasury publishes the Financial Report of the United States. The Government Accountability Office publishes a guide to understanding the financial report.
   Access the Most Current Report (This page had the full .pdf and sections for the most recent report).
   Access the Financial Report of the U.S. Government website
   Access the GAO Guide to the Financial Report
   Read the Congressional Research Service's Report, "Federal Financial Reporting" Federal Financial and Budgetary Reporting: A Primer," Updated 2022
   Read the Congressional Research Service's Report, "Federal Financial Reporting" (A 2013 report, but still a useful resource.)

Public Law Resources

The United States Supreme Court
(Docket, Briefs, Oral Arguments, Opinions)
Access the Supreme Court Homepage

Court of Appeals and District Court Opinions
   Government Printing Office -- U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
   Government Printing Office -- U.S. District Courts
   The Legal Information Institute Cornell University
   https://www.law.cornell.edu/federal/opinions.html
   FindLaw.com
   https://www.findlaw.com/casecode/

Constitution of the United States
   The Constitution with Analysis and Interpretation (GPO for the Senate 2016 Edition).
   The Constitution -- The Basic Document from (GPO) as Amended and Unratified Amendments.
   The Amendments to the Constitution -- The Basic Document from (GPO)

GovInfo.gov The Primary Site for Federal Documents
GovInfo.gov is the primary site to access federal documents. [This website replaced what was known as the Federal Digital System (FDsys) in December 2018.]
Access GovInfo.gov

United States Code and Statutes at Large
   The U.S. Code and the Statutes at Large from 1789 to the present are available online. The materials up to 1950 are available through the Library of Congress online and from 1951 on are available through the Government Printing Office online resources.
   Access the U.S. Code.
   Access the Statutes at Large Via the Library of Congress. This site includes Volumes 1-64, (1789-1950) via the Library of Congress website
   Access the Statutes at Large (1951 - Present).

U.S. Regulations (Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations)
   The Federal Register provides the daily publication of administrative rules and rulemaking announcements (among other executive branch publications). The Code of Federal Regulations is the codification for federal rules by subject.
   Federal Register
   Today's Edition of the Federal Register
   Code of Federal Regulations

U.S. Government Regulation Process Portals
   Regulations.gov is the comprehensive Internet portal created in response to the E-Government Act of 2003 where comments can be provided to pending rules.
   https://www.regulations.gov
   RegInfo.gov is a site that provides status reports and regulatory analysis materials on federal rules, including the regulatory Agenda, regulatory review analyses, information collection analyses, and public input on pending rules (via Regulations.gov).
   https://www.reginfo.gov

U.S. Department of Justice Opinions and Briefs
Opinions Issued by the Office of Legal Counsel
Briefs Filed by the Solicitor General

Presidential Executive Orders
   Until the beginning of the Trump Administration, executive orders and the changes they made in other existing orders were available through the National Archives' "Disposition Tables." Since the beginning of the Trump administration, there has been a transition underway to provide the orders through a "Executive Orders" site operated by the Office of the Federal Register.
   National Archives and Records Administration
   Disposition Tables from Dwight W. Eisenhower to George W. Bush
   Full text links from 1995 to January 20, 2017
   https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/disposition.html
   Office of the Federal Register
   Executive Orders
   Full text links from 1995 to January 20, 2017
   Full text links from 1994 to Present

Presidential Proclamations and Presidential Memoranda
   Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents Through January 2009 and then Daily Compilation of Presidential Documents thereafter.
   Because of their historical importance, the Alito Memorandum, the signing statement on the Detainee Protection Act, and the response of Senators McCain and Warner to are posted as well. Also at the request of some interested in the subject, articles on the subject by the author are provided.
   Federal Register Presidential Proclamations Website
   Federal Register "Other Presidential Documents" Website Focusing on Presidential Memoranda.

Other Sources for Accessing Presidential Proclamations, Memoranda, Signing Statements
   Compilation of Presidential Documents
   Ms. Joyce Green's Index to signing statements from 2001 to presentl
   Ms. Joyce Green's Signing statements from 2001 to presentl
   Ms. Joyce Green's Signing statements from 2001 to presentl -- Annotated
   Access the Woolley and Peters Data Base of Signing statements from 1929 to present.
   Additional Materials About the Alito Memorandum, the Detainee Protection Act Order, the Senate Response, and Explanatory Articles.
   Read the Alito Memorandum.
   Read the Presidential Signing Statement on H.R.2863.
   Read the Levin Response to the Signing Statement.
   Read the McCain and Warner Response.
   Access Phillip J. Cooper, George W. Bush, Edgar Allan Poe, and the Use and Abuse of Presidential Signing Statements.
   Access Phillip J. Cooper, Signing Statements as Declaratory Judgments: The President as Judge.

National Security Directives
Federation of American Scientists
https://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/direct.htm

Executive Agreements and Treaties
   Treaties are international agreements that require Senate advice and consent under the Constitution, but executive agreements do not in most instances require specific congressional approval, though they may require appropriations or other actions for implementation. Executive agreements are considered as treaties in the international arena even though they are not treaties within the United States in constitutional terms. For too long, the tendency to view policy and law as either domestic U.S. or international has meant a lack of attention to executive agreements and the many important impacts they have within the country and not just in the international arena.
   The U.S. Department of State provides the following sources. (For more information on international materials, see the International Law Resources further down on this webpage.)
   Texts of International Agreements to Which the U.S. is a Party (TIAS)
   Treaties in Force
   Treaties Pending in the Senate
   Office of Legal Adviser for Treaty Affairs
   Department of State Press Releases

United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Reports
GAO Reports to Congress, testimony, Comptroller General's Contracts Rulings, Major Rulemaking Reports
https://www.gao.gov/

Administrative Conference of the United States (ACUS)
"ACUS is an independent federal agency charged with convening expert representatives from the public and private sectors to recommend improvements to administrative process and procedure. ACUS initiatives promote efficiency, participation, and fairness in the promulgation of federal regulations and in the administration of federal programs." From the ACUS website. The site provides a variety of resources, including ACUS reports on specific topics in administrative law.
ACUS Homepage

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports
   Congressional Research Service reports to Congress are prepared for the use of the committees and members of Congress. The Library of Congress has launched a publicly available Congressional Research Service Reports website (mandated by Section 154 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2018). Until the passage of that legislation, the LOC took the position that the CRS reports were prepared for the use of Congress and did not make them available to the public, though other websites have made many of them available online.
   The Federation of American Scientists' site website has been one of the best places to find CRS reports. A site opened in 2016 known as EveryCRSReport.com with more than 8,000 such documents.
   Access the CRS Reports Library of Congress Page.
   Access a collection of selected CRS reports via the Federation of American Scientists site.
   .Access the EveryCRSReport website.

Administrative Conference of the United States (ACUS)
   As the ACUS explains it "ACUS is an independent federal agency charged with convening expert representatives from the public and private sectors to recommend improvements to administrative process and procedure."
   Access the ACUS Website
   Access the Federal Administrative Procedure Sourcebook
   Access the Sourcebook of United States Executive Agencies

U.S. Government Agencies Directory and US Government Manual
   USA.gov Directory of Agencies and Elected Officials. The Government Printing Office also prepares the official US Government Manual. The other key item is a report in U.S. Executive Agencies prepared by the Administrative Conference of the United States.
   USA.gov Homepage
   Most Recent US Govenrment Manual (2017) in .pdf
   US Govenrment Manual Online
   ACUS Sourcebook of United States Executive Agencies

Native American Law Resources

Native American Tribal and Nation Constitutions and Bylaws
Constitutions and Bylaws via University of Oklahoma Native American Constitution and Law Digitization Project
Project Homepage

National Indian Law Library
Includes Indian Law Bulletin and Tribal Law Gateway
https://www.narf.org/nill/index.htm

National Indian Law Library
National Indian Court Judges Association
NILL Homepage

International Law Resources

United Nations International Law Materials
   Home page for UN Legal Affairs
   Access the United Nations Treaty Collection
   Access UN Documents

International Court of Justice
Home Page
Case Law

European Union Law "Eur-Lex"
Home Page

Congressional and General Federal Research

Congressional Materials
   Congress.gov: Legislative Information on the Internet
   Congress.gov Homepage
   Congressional Research Service reports to Congress are prepared for the use of the committees and members of Congress. The Library of Congress has launched a publicly available Congressional Research Service Reports website (mandated by Section 154 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2018). Until the passage of that legislation, the LOC took the position that the CRS reports were prepared for the use of Congress and did not make them available to the public, though other websites have made many of them available online.
   Access the CRS Reports Library of Congress Page.
   Access a collection of selected CRS reports via the Federation of American Scientists site.
   .Access the EveryCRSReport website.

   Legislative History Materials. The Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C., has published its "Legislative SourceBook"
   https://www.llsdc.org/sourcebook/
   Richard J. McKinney and Ellen A. Sweet, "Federal Legislative History Research: A Practitioners Guide to Compiling the Documents and Difting for Legislative Intent," on its Internet site.
   https://www.llsdc.org/sourcebook/fed-leg-hist.htm

General Federal Government Searches
https://www.USAgov.gov/index.shtml

General Legal Research Sites

Legal Dictionary -- Findlaw.com
Access this easy to use Legal Dictionary.

The Legal Information Institute Cornell University
https://www.law.cornell.edu/

FindLaw.com
https://www.findlaw.com/

Peter W. Martin, Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2003 ed.)
https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/

Federal Legislative History
   Offered by Library of Congress Law Library
   Offered by Georgetown Law Library
   "Federal Legislative History 101," by Rick McKinney, Provided by the Law Librarians' Society of Washington D.C.
   "Federal Legislative History Research: A Practitioner's Guide," by Richard J. McKinney and Ellen A. Sweet, Provided by the Law Librarians' Society of Washington D.C.

Standard Approaches to Statutory Interpretation
Larry M. Eig Specialist in American Public Law of the Congressional Research Service has provided a useful guide to the essential norms of legislative interpretation, in his CRS Report to Congress entitled "Statutory Interpretation: General Principles and Recent Trends."
Access "Statutory Interpretation: General Principles and Recent Trends."

Legislative History Guides for All 50 States
Compiled by the Law Library of the Maurer School of Law, Indiana University