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Chapter 3: Patterns | |
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Chapter 4:Scale | |
| Chapter 5: Networks | ||
Chapter 6: Stock and Flow Systems |
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Chapter 7: Accounting and Indexes |
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| Chapter 8: Risk and Uncertainty | ||
| Chapter 9: Values and worldviews | ||
| Chapter 10: Games |
We all share our environment. We are all responsible for the damage. We should all be involved in solving these problems. By "problems" I mean any situation in which the environment could improve. It could improve because the ecosystem and other earth functions work smoothly. Or, it could improve by providing humans with the same level of services and goods with less impact. We observe and measure processes in the environment, such as tree growth or fishery production, to understand the first type of problem. However, we need to understand how humans use the environment, what they prefer, and the impact of their use to address the second type of problem. Environmental problems include physical, biological and ecological processes and how humans use and value them. Values are central to discussing and understanding of environmental issues.
Environmental science takes a different approach to science than its sister disciplines such as biology and chemistry. We focus on problems and because problems entail values, we have to deal with human values right from the start. Some scientists rigorously explore and build new knowledge that may have no known application to problems. This includes some of the outstanding findings in molecular biology, evolution, nano-chemistry or cosmology. By contrast, environmental scientists usually focus on an existing problem and use rigorous methods to discover new and immediately useful knowledge. At the other end of the spectrum, scientists take a scientific approach to existing problems with immediate applications of their new knowledge. Problem-based science uses different experimental design, methods and modes of analysis tailored to our needs. The difference extends to underlying goals. For example, in laboratory science the goal may be to run many replicates in order to get accuracy. There may be no reason not to run many replicates and controls under very specific conditions. In environmental science, particularly field work, unique circumstances and locations make it very difficult to even get limited replication. If you are studying a high altitude lake, there just might not be many similar lakes around. The goal for environmental scientists might be to uncover a pattern indicating or warning of an underlying problem rather than being able to run many replicates to prove the causes of a particular phenomenon.
Many environmental problems are complex. There are many factors that interact leading to outcomes dependent not only on the factors interacting but the landscape shape as a result of those interactions. People interact with the environment to get resources and in the process change the very nature of how resources are obtained and used. For example, humans cut down trees and in the process change the local landscape and weather necessary to regenerate the forest. These complex interactions may not have any direct cause and effect relationships. Instead, there are multiple factors and a patterns of interaction. In order to study these problems we need to think differently. In order to solve these problems we need to act differently.
We must examine complex problems from different perspectives. We can probe and describe the problem's features employing different intellectual tools. For example, we might study a polluted stream by descibing the water flow, measuring chemical input rates, assessing impacts on fish, level of uncertainty, and then exploring management approaches to reduce pollution. This information from multiple disciplines could be used to identify the problem. However to look for solutions, we will have to integrate what we know and come up with new ideas. We have to go beyond just critically analyzing the problem into the realm of generating new ideas. This book provides a framework for making observations from multiple perspectives, holding all of these in your head until you try to make a decision about what to do. The framework's first part is to intentionally examine problems using different methods. These methods range from describing the scale of the problem to creating accounts and indexes (Table 1-1). Each of these methods provides some different information.
Table 1-1. Eight tools to explore different perspectives of environmental problems.
Chapter 3: Patterns Chapter 4:Scale Chapter 5: Networks Chapter 6: Stock and Flow Systems
Chapter 7: Accounting and Indexes
Chapter 8: Risk and Uncertainty Chapter 9: Values and worldviews Chapter 10: Games
The so-called "tragedy of the commons" is used to demonstrate the idea that individuals will use resources to meet their own needs even if it means degrading a common resource that could be more productive if managed more thoughtfully. This example stems from grazing sheep on common land and it was to individual farmer's advantage to graze more sheep than the land could support sustainably.
I have seen this example presented many times as if it really is a tragedy, i.e. a forgone conclusion that humans will pursue their own individual interest above the common interests of the community. These are analyzed as if they are one-shot interactions and the "prisoners' dilemma" metaphor is introduced. First of all, research on common pool resource management by communities shows that almost all of these are managed by community-based institutions (Ostrom ****). Secondly, invoking the prisoners' dilemma from game theory is a critical look at this problem, not a generative look. If we want to know why a particular commons was over-exploited, this might be valid. But if we are looking for solutions (as many authentic communities are), we can integrate the information we get from the games approach along with stock and flow systems to set useful guidelines for livestock management such that the common grazing land can be used sustainably and for the communities best interest as a whole.
The precautionary principle is a decision criteria that states when you don't know the outcome you should take action to avoid the worst outcomes. This principle is also interpreted to mean that if you don't know the outcome of an activity, then you shouldn't do it. As stated, this principle seems to provide a simple guideline for cautious action. This often leads to paralysis in complex and wicked problems (see next chapter).
In an integrative approach we would explore a problem from many different perspectives in an attempt to discover new ways to address the problem. Rather than shying away from action in complex and wicked problems, we would be drawn to the complexity like moths to flame. *** more here ***
Environmental science addresses authentic problems that require mulitple disciplines and management approaches. All of the problems have issues with information, control and values. Is there enough information available to understand the problem and know what to do or is there a large amount of uncertainty? Do we have the skills or ability to actually control the situation and apply solutions? Are the community values in alignment or is there disagreement between individual or parts of the community on what they want to do? Not only are environmental issues such as global climate change and loss of biodiversity important to our civilization as a whole, but the pragmatic appraoch taken by environmental science can be a useful philosophical basis for you as an individual. In order to solve the big problems our society needs to deal with mundane, every-day problems. Climate change is linked to fossil fuel use; fossil fuel use is linked to transportation; transportation provides options for education and food provisioning. All of these are inter-related and it will take a robust "philosophy of life" to deal with them.
Some of the examples and issues in this book will highlight how knowledge, skills and values are inter-related at the levels of individuals. Simply, the knowledge you aquire is related to your intellectual skills and that is motivated by your basic value system.
This book has four sections. The first section deals with describing environmental science and why we use multiple perspectives (this chapter) and a description of major problem types and approaches to solving environmental problems (Chapter 2). Problem types are characterized in three dimensions, 1) the knowledge or uncertainty, 2) the level of control that can be brought to bear on the problem, and 3) the alignment of community values or conflict that might exist over possible solutions.
The second section of the book presents eight approaches (Table 1-1). Each approach is described as a method to examine a problem. Applying a particular method to a problem has heuristic value, i.e. it tells you whether that particualr approach gets any traction with the problem at hand. Each approach can lead to more sophisticated applications and analysis of problems. The approaches are illustrated by a graphical exercise. These graphics should help you to engage some of your emotional and creative skills.
The third section presents approaches for addressing environmental problems that are matched to the knowledge, control and values attributes. For example if you have abundant information, ability to control the implementation of a solution and everyone agrees, you can use optimal project management to find the most efficient outcome. However if there is a high degree of uncertainty, the situation is out of your control and no community consensus exists you might only be able to start a discussion around possible paths by using possible scenarios. These are the two extremes and there are intersting approaches in between (Table 1-2).
Table 1-2. Range of approaches for addressing environmental problems
Approach Chapter Optimal project management
11
Common pool resource institutions 12 Scenarios of realistic outcomes 13 Scientific Adaptive Management 14 Diversification and Multi-criteria decisions 15 Innovation by design 16 Environmental entrepreneurism 17
The final section is the last chapter that deals with evaluation of outcomes. All of the methods (part 2) and approaches (part 3) are ways to get started. Real environmental problems will change and require constant adjustment of monitoring and management. Chapter 18 explains how to continually revisit and adapt. For example, you might start out with a serious problem and your only option is to develop scenarios until you can build support. That might lead to enough community support of consensus to employ some experimental techniques which you could follow rigorously with scientific adaptive management. Finally, after years of successful scientific adaptive management you may be able to switch to a set of diverse management tools that cover the possible outcomes and reduce risk of failure. The only way you can move along this path toward more direct solutions is by continual evaluation and adaptation.