Suggested citation:

Kelly, T. L. (1998). "Kali as a Symbol of Transformation in Conflict Resolution." (Unpublished graduate paper, Portland State University, July 1998). Portland, OR: Author.

Introduction

Hinduism is a term that encompasses many aspects of Indian culture, religious practice, and daily life. "Hindu" means, literally, "of the Indus," meaning the Indus River, the river around which India arose as a collective culture and a people. The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit word sindhu ("river," more specifically, the Indus); the Persians in the 5th century BC called the Hindus by that name, identifying them as the people of the land of the Indus. The Hindus' own definitions of their community are "those who believe in the Vedas" or "those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas)." (O'Flaherty, 1998) The Hindu do not experience the sense of categorization of religious life versus other aspects of daily life as we do in the West. Hinduism is both way of life and way of worship. The canon of Hinduism is basically defined with regard to what people do rather than what they think. In the final analysis, Hindu is closer to Islam than it is to Christianity in the character of its practice in daily life, and in the level of internalization that occurs for the individual.

It is important to understand this different way of internalizing the meaning and practice of Hinduism if we are to understand the necessity and vitality of the prolific extended family of gods and goddesses in the Hindu pantheon. I have found it easier to comprehend the Hindu model by thinking of Hinduism as spheres within spheres, like a spherical version of the Chinese boxes puzzle. Deep inside the center is The Brahman and The Goddess, which together constitute the Universal Soul, or The Absolute Truth, or what we in the West would probably accord the status of one monotheistic "God." This central sphere is surrounded by a pantheon of ten gods and goddesses that represent the direct manifestation of The Universal Soul, and they move freely around The Brahman and the Goddess, yet always subject to their will. Then, surrounding this pantheon is another sphere of gods and goddesses that are multiple manifestations of the ten; and if we continue with this pattern of surrounding these manifestations with more free moving spheres - or groups of manifestation - we get a sort of "trickle down effect" of The Universal Soul through numerous facets of manifestation that are all connected and eventually all originate from the central point - the Brahman and The Goddess.

Another way to picture this model is as one of those disco balls that hang in a dance hall. So, we have a rotating sphere with many pieces of cut glass, or "facets," and its center is hidden from view. Metaphorically speaking we can equate the hidden center with The Brahman and The Goddess, and when we turn on the colored lights and turn the ball, the many facets take on different colors, and these facets also have the quality of reflecting the outside world, but if you looked directly into one facet your self-reflection would be slightly altered by the character of the facet. In this model, all these facets in Hindu are represented by gods and goddesses who have names, responsibilities and personalities; but it is understood that they are all corresponding facets of the core Universal Soul. In addition, each god is mated with a corresponding goddess , who create altogether different facetsof vitality of the Universal Soul when working in consort.[1]

One of the ten dieties that make up the first "sphere" of manifestation around The central Universal Soul is the goddess Parvati (or Parvathi), who has many other names. One of the most popular names by which she is worshipped is by the name "Kali." (Gandhi) In this paper I will show how the transformative facets and activities of Kali can be a useful as a role model in conflict resolution, especially for contemporary progressive models of conflict resolution, such as the "transformative approach" and for narrative therapy.

The Semiotics of Kali

Kali is worshipped throughout India and Nepal, and even among the non-Islamic Indonesians of Bali. Along with her consort, Shiva, Kali is a role model for different sorts of transformation on emotional, spiritual, and physical levels. Most of these transformations are stages of death and destruction, but there is usually a corresponding assumption that the transformative process of death and destruction leads to rebirth and renewal; thus Kali represents the highest form of transformation, the Absolute itself.

If you're a child in the West and watch TV cartoons, you have an idea who Kali is according to the Tantric side of Hinduism. She almost invariably appears as the evil demoness who the superhero has to conquer. However, this 2-dimensional representation of Kali is highly insulting to many Hindus, who regard her as multi-faceted, including as the Absolute itself, and who study her not only in her manifestation in the Tantra, but in other arenas of Hindu worship as well - Dharma ("way of life"), the Mahabharata, and Vedanta. To her worshipers in both Shakta and Tantra she represents a multi-faceted Great Goddess responsible for all of life from conception to death. Another negative conotation that has befallen Kali's image is her relationship to the the name "thug." The "Thuggees" were actually Muslims of long ago who took the goddess Kali as their tutelary deity during a particularly volatile time between Muslims and Hindus in India. (Magee, 1995)

All this aside, the truth is that Kali receives her name because she devours Kala (Time) and then resumes her own dark formlessness. (Woodroffe, 1974) This transformative effect can be metaphorically illustrated in the West as a black hole in space [2]. Kali as such is pure and primary reality (the "enfolded order" in modern physics); formless void yet full of potential. The origins of worship of a Black Goddess may go as far back as the beginnings of India, with the occupation of the Aryans (light-skinned), from the north side of the Indus River, into the land of the Dravidians (dark-skinned) on the south side, who were arguably occupying the area before the Aryans migrated into the Indus Valley. (Winters, 1984). However the Aryan Invasion Theory of India's origins is currently in dispute. (Camphausen, 1998; Chintalapaty, 1996) Another ancient black Hindu deity may have a close connection with Kali: Krishna, hero of the Mahabharata. According to the Kalivilasa Tantra, Krishna was born from the golden goddess Gauri, who turned black after she was hit by an arrow from the Hindu cupid, Kama. Hindu scholars of the Kali story have noted a pattern of strong-willed goddesses transformed into black goddesses, and a relationship to this pattern with Kali. And Krishna - another strong-willed god - is also illustrated as a black diety. (Magee)

In the Tantric tradition, pictures of Kali show her standing on the dead body of her consort Shiva, with a necklace of human skulls and a belt with human arms hanging from it. This belt signifies Karma (action and deed). The string of arms around her waist represent the lives that are born again and again in the cycle of reincarnation or samsara. In her own four hands she is holding an axe, a trident, a severed human head and a bowl of blood. [3] Around her rages fire, or a battle, or she is in a cremation field, dancing in the ashes of the dead. She herself is depicted as either the color of a thundercloud (grey-black) or the color of fire (orange-red). Her protruding long tongue drips with the fresh blood of her enemies. [4] However, Tantric texts repeatedly speak of all the goddesses as being aspects of The One Goddess, and so they are all pure and divine according to Hindu law. For instance, when Kali is referred to as a benevolent being, she is usually referred to as Parvati (or Parvathi), benevolent consort of Shiva. As Shakti, in consort with Shiva, Kali is "Goddess of Power." (Chintalapaty) As Kali in and of herself, she is depicted dancing on the corpse of her consort, Shiva, signifying the conquest of Shiva, god of Time. These names are to be understood as aspects or facets of The Goddess that is consort to the central Brahman. As individual humans all reflect the Universal Soul, it's fair to describe the gods and goddesses of tantra as specialized aspects of ourselves - and, therefore, a reflection of the diversity of life itself. (Magee)

The Karpuradistotra, a 22 verse hymn on Kali's manifestation as Dakshina Kalika (one of her dark terrifying manifestations), comments on animal sacrifice connected with Kali. (Avalon, 1965) Goat sacrifices are still held two days a week at Kali's temple in Calcutta [5]. Only male (including human) creatures may be sacrificed to Kali. Verse 19 of the Karpuradistotra says that worshippers of Kali become accomplished if they sacrifice to her the flesh of cats, camels, sheep, buffaloes, goats and men. A commentary by the Kaula [6] Vimalananda Svami, claims these animals represent the six enemies of Kali; the goat representing lust, the buffalo anger, the cat greed, the sheep delusion, the camel envy. (Avalon). Man represents pride [7]. Therefore, worship of Kali is for the strong-willed hero (vira) or a person of a highly spiritual nature (divya), who can interpret and appreciate the transformative aspects of these human qualities while at the same time appreciating their volatility. Most Hindus are familiar with, at least general terms, these aspects and the rites of appreciation, as Kali is a popular idol for worship of The Goddess.

The Hindu siddhis (magical powers) as described in the Kulachudamani Tantra, play a large part in the worship of the goddess Kali. (Woodroffe) The main tantric rites of Kali are the six acts [8] of pacifying, subjugating, paralysing, obstructing, driving away, and death-dealing. (Magee) It is these "magical powers" of transformation, working against the six enemies of Kali (described above), that can be invoked by the mediator in pertinent instances of interpersonal conflict resolution; for, as previously stated, these siddhis are popularly known to be associated with Kali.

The Transformative Approach to Interpersonal Conflict Resolution

The transformative approach to mediation does not seek resolution of the immediate problem, but rather, seeks the empowerment and mutual recognition of the parties involved. Empowerment means enabling the parties to define their own issues and to seek solutions on their own. The "mediator" role is therefore dynamic and distant, as opposed to rule-making and direct involvement. By "recognition," Bush and Folger mean considering the perspective, views, and experiences of the other. Recognition, they say, "means the evocation in individuals of acknowledgment and empathy for the situation and problems of others." (Folger & Bush, 1994) Recognition means enabling the parties to see and understand the other person's point of view--to understand how they define the problem and why they seek the solution that they do. (Burgess et al, 1997)

Transformative approaches to conflict resolution include transformative mediation, the conceptions of transformative peacemaking and conflict transformation, (Lederach, 1995) the analytical problem solving/human needs approach to conflict transformation, research on the transformation of conflicts from unmanageable to manageable, and other techniques for successfully dealing with complex conflicts, particularly dialogue and constructive confrontation. (Burgess)

The key concepts and goals of the transformative model of conflict resolution are to recognize and give empowerment to the parties involved. (Folger & Bush, 1994). Folger & Bush introduced ten "hallmarks" that distinguish transformative mediation from other forms of intervention. in 1996, two years after the publication of their book, The Promise of Mediation. (Folger & Bush, 1996). Here is a summary of these ten hallmarks (summarized by Heidi Burgess):

1. In the opening statement, the transformative mediator will explain the mediator's role and the objectives of mediation as being focused on empowerment and recognition.
2. The transformative mediator will leave responsibility for the outcomes with the parties.
3. A transformative mediator will not be judgmental about the parties' views and decisions.
4. Transformative mediators take an optimistic view of the parties' competence and motives.
5. Transformative mediators allow and are responsive to parties' expression of emotions.
6. Transformative mediators allow for and explor parties' uncertainty.
7. Transformative mediators remain focused on what is currently happening in the mediation setting.
8. Transformative mediators are responsive to parties' statements about past events.
9. Transformative mediators realize that conflict can be a long-term process and that mediation is one intervention in a longer sequence of conflict interactions.
10. Transformative mediators feel (and express) a sense of success when empowerment and recognition occur, even in small degrees. They do not see a lack of settlement as a "failure."

A number of conflict theorists and practitioners, including John Paul Lederach, advocate the pursuit of "conflict transformation," as opposed to "conflict resolution" or "conflict management." Conflict transformation, as described by Lederach, does not suggest that we simply eliminate or control conflict, but rather recognize and work with its dynamic nature. By this he means that social conflict is naturally created by humans who are involved in relationships. Once conflict occurs, it transforms those events, people, and relationships that created the initial conflict. Conflict transformation is also a prescriptive concept. It suggests that left alone, conflict can have destructive consequences. However, the consequences can be modified or transformed so that self-images, relationships, and social structures improve as a result of conflict instead of being harmed by it. (Burgess)

One way these models are holistically logical alongside the Kali story is when it is recognized that, in the end, we are all the same - "a pile of ashes" - as illustrated by Kali's role as both destroyer and creator in the cremation ground. [9] "The cremation ground is often interpreted as the place where all desires are burnt away. Before realising kaivalya (liberation), the sadhaka must burn away all the taboos and conditionings which prevent this liberation." (Magee) In order for a fresh point of view to arise from "the ashes," there must be some destruction - or at least deconstruction - of old views, which make room for fresh perspectives. Also, at critical points in conflict resolution, there may be the need for one, several, or all parties to sacrifice goals as opposed to struggling towards an unmanageable compromise. Introducing the idea and validity of sacrifice can be helped along with an analogy to the death & rebirth model of the Kali story. This model does not take away from, but rather facilitates empowerment by virtue of pro-active sacrifice, for there is nothing destroyed by Kali that is not followed by a necessary renewal or rebirth. Also, the sacrifice changes the conflict resolution terms and setting, enabling the opportunity for a fresh look at each parties' goals. The actual physical activity of the mediator in transformative conflict resolution is spontaneous and dynamic (usually on her feet, as opposed to the seated position of the traditional mediator or arbitrator), perhaps flitting from one side of the center of "the fire" (the conflict resolution setting) to the other, to facilitate the bringing to consciousness of all aspects (facets) of the conflict. Picturing this spontaneous movement from one side of the "fire" to the other, is akin to an image of Kali, who moves around all sides of the cremation pyre to get a full view of the six enemies which she destroys - using pacifying, subjugating, paralysing, obstructing, driving away, and death-dealing - in order to re-create new life from the ashes. Finally, invoking analogy to Kali cuts across issues of sexism. Kali is a role model of strength and resolve for both Hindu men and women of India. [10]

Narrative Therapy

Another arena where the story of Kali would be useful to resolve conflict is in the interpersonal or family setting for narrative therapy. The assumption in narrative therapy is that stories have the power to release and change. When new story elements can be introduced into a problem-saturated "life story" narrative, remarkable things can happen. If these elements - these points of difference - can be given life and turned into what literary theorist, Charles Baxter, calls a "counterpoint narrative," there's a good chance that existing, but dysfunctional marriage or family stories can be changed. So in this way, getting clients to engage in storywork can be very beneficial. (Barry, 1998)

One practical aspect of narrative therapy is listening. Unlike the transformative mediator, whose active listening is intended to reflect back the client's story like mirrored facets of the disco ball, the narrative therapist treats the problem as one would treat a block in the writing of a story - the problem in the "story" that needs to be edited or re-written - and so looks for hidden meanings, spaces or gaps, and evidence of conflicting stories or blocks to narrative flow. This process of listening for what is not said can be also described as simple deconstruction in the manner of Derrida or Foucault. The narrative therapist is actively involved from the outset in delving into the meanings of the client's life, and facilitating the transformation of the client's life story - including its conflict, plot, and characters - in order to delegate the "problem" into a constructive opportunity for transformation; since all narrative stories have in common a conflict, plot, and the transformation of its characters. Once again, Kali would be a compliment to this model as she represents the processes of change and transformation using various "magical powers," and she destroys blocks placed by ego, represented by Kali's six enemies - lust, anger, greed, delusion, envy and pride. (Avalon) In essence, "change the story and life changes." (Barry)

Conclusion

What is important about providing such semiotics in conflict resolution? Because, without a model both sides of the conflict can bond with in their own imagination, and in order to resolve the conflict with all parties "on the same page," it is sometimes necessary to create a map (or story) that reflects the spirit of the conflict as authentically as possible and in the cultural language of the parties involved.

A traditional view of conflict resolution starts with the idea that whenever serious conflict arises there is a strong moral imperative for reasonable people to sit down and work out a "win-win" or common-ground solution with their opponent. Sometimes this is the appropriate path, but not always. Alinsky, a proponent of radical in-your-face confrontation as opposed to a peaceful "win-win" approach, said, "All change means movement, movement means friction and friction means heat. You'll find consensus only in a totalitarian state, communist or fascist ... conflict is the vital core of an open society." (Bailey, 1986) It is beyond the scope of this paper to go into detail about the Alinsky Approach to conflict resolution, but suffice it to say that there is a place for appreciating the conflict of resolution, and Kali is again a symbol of the ability to appreciate conflict as a motivator for change.

Finally, a digressive note to provide a segue to my next paper regarding Nazi propaganda. Here in the West, we most often associate the symbol of the Swastika with something malevolent, on account of Hitler's having used the symbol as a primary associative semiotic for propaganda purposes. Ironically, the swastika in India represents, and has represented since time immemorial, an emblem of good luck. It is the Saustika (or sauvastika) - a Swastika with all line directions reversed to the left - which signifies a terrifying, sometimes malevolent presence. The Saustika is Kali's symbol. In India, one would expect to see the swastika everywhere, used as a good luck charm, and also will see shrines to Kali that show the reverse, the saustika, to symbolize Kali's power to destroy so that renewal can occur.

Footnotes

[1] The symbolism in Hinduism is also analogous to the modern communication methods adopted by the computer industry. They both adjust to the diverse tastes and needs of the world. Only a small segment of the general public look for sophistication and special features. The common folk who are in the majority, demand simple illustrations and practical examples rather than lengthy logic. The computer industry employs creative graphic displays of "icons" (akin to the facets or manifestations of Brahman) to satisfy the general public. The versatility of Hindu symbolism seems to imply that it does not work well as a one-size-fits-all theory. (Excerpted from an article by Ram Chandran (chandra2@ers.bitnet) posted on alt.hindu. on Usenet. Used with permission.) return to text

[2] Kali is often referred to in the West as the Black Goddess, for reasons explained later in this section of this paper. return to text

[3] Sometimes Kali is depicted with just two arms, and her right hand is raised in the mudra: "Be not afraid." return to text

[4] "The Myth of the Long-Tongued Demoness" from the Hindu text Jaiminiya Brahmana, predates the attribution of a long tongue to Kali. (O'Flaherty, 1995). The Long-Tongue Demoness may also be compared to the long-tongued dog who does battle with the heroes in the Rig Veda and the Mahabharata. The manifestation of Kali as sexually aggressive may have been spurred by this myth. return to text

[5] The name "Calcutta" is most likely an Anglicized version of the word Kalighat, or Kaligata (sanskrit), which means "Kali Temple." That makes Calcutta the city of Kali, which is probably why she has a preponderance of Indian followers in Calcutta and nearby Bengal. (see Camphausen) return to text

[6] Kaula means "a revered Hindu knower of hymns to Kali." It is also a cognate with the word "Clan" in the Kaula Tradition of Tantrika. (Magee) return to text

[7] An analogy to the West's Christian account of The Seven Deadly Sins can be argued as either originating from or having some relationship with the six enemies of Kali. return to text

[8] Collectively, the shatkarma. return to text

[9] Many terms used in the tantrik tradition have meanings which can be taken at face value but do not always have this meaning, thus making them difficult to understand to the literally-minded. The mentality of the pashu, or a person with a herd-disposition, is said to predispose him or her to misunderstand the meaning. This cryptic way of speaking pervades many of the tantric texts. Should a cremation ground, for instance, be understood as the yoni (female sexual organ), or as the real place where corpses are burnt, or as a symbol for the Absolute? The answer may be all three. Keep in mind that disco ball and how many spheres could be held in it, therefore so many facets can be lined up with one another in different ways. It is also important to remember that legends and stories within the Hindu tradition may be intended to appeal to parts of the human mind which are not solely connected with logic. (Magee) return to text

[10] An epic called "The 100 names of Kali" occurs in the Adyakali Svarupa Stotra, a hymn to Kali that is part of the Mahanirvana Tantra. What emerges when reading this hymn, is an exposition of this goddess in a variety of strikingly different aspects, most of them particularly feminist. For example, the first ten names attribute:

1. Kali as revealer, benefactress and embodiment of the Kaula school of Tantrics, their teachings, rituals and lifestyle.
2. Kali as merciful helper and destructress of evil, fear, pride and sin.
3. Kali as young, beautiful, swan-like and sensual woman.
4. Kali as embodiment of desire and liberator from desire, as a free woman who enjoys and lets herself be enjoyed.
5. Kali who enjoys and partakes of drugs and aphrodisiacs (camphor, musk, wine).
6. Kali who enjoys and encourages the worship of young women (with wine, drugs and sexual play).
7. Kali as Queen of the holy city Varanasi (Benares) and as lover, beloved and devourer of the god Shiva (the Lord of that city).
8. Kali as shape-shifter (assuming any form at will).
9. Kali of terrific countenance, wearing a garland of bones, using a human skull as cup (Skt., kapala).
10. Kali as dark night, mother and destructress of time, as the fire of the worlds dissolution.
(see Camphausen) return to text

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