Background

Naming a Country

Sri Lanka a country about the size of West Virginia or Ireland. Even today, Sri Lanka is still known as Ceylon by some. While the name may bring up images of colonial times, it retains its cherished goodwill value. As an example, one of the country’s most important financial institutions remains the Bank of Ceylon. The Ceylon Electricity Board provides electricity services to modern Sri Lanka. There are enterprises like the Ceylon Fertilizer Company, the Ceylon Petroleum Corporation, Ceylon Silks and even the Ceylon Tourist Board.

Lanka was the name used from very early times. It is derived from a Sanskrit word-meaning island. It is used with reference to the island in such Indian classics as the Ramayana. When Sri Lanka gained there independence from Britain in 1948, they decided to go back to a form of the ancient name of Lanka.

Ptolemy, an Egyptian geographer of the second century AD, recorded the Roman name as Taprobane, he also noted that the island produced rice, ginger, beryl and ivory. The name came from Thambapanni. For the origin of that name, reference to the Mahavamsa, which was written in Pali, reveals, "When those who were commanded by Vijaya landed there from their ship, they wearied, resting their hands on the ground. And since their hands were reddened by touching the dust of the red earth, that region and also the island was named Thambapanni (copper colored earth)."

Arab traders chose the name Serendib. Whenever that name is referred to it is linked with the word coined to describe the faculty for making happy and unexpected discoveries by accident: Serendipity. This serendipity certainly describes the diverse scenery of Sri Lanka very aptly.

It was the Dutch who adopted the Portuguese name of Ceilao for the island. The British pronounced it as Ceylon and so the island eventually gave the world its best-known export, Pure Ceylon Tea. As Sri Lanka, the island is better known amongst the younger generation around the world for its cricket team. To anyone born after 1972, the name Ceylon is not even a memory.

The country is the location of the first wildlife sanctuary created during the 3 B.C, the oldest historical tree also planted in 3 B. C. Litreature abounds with the many books and tales of Sri Lanka. Quite a few of Sinbad the Sailor's stories in the Arabian Nights are based on Arab merchants travels. Robert Knox, who wrote on his life of captivity in 1681 during the Dutch colonial time, formed the main scource for Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe . Pablo Neruda lived in Colombo in the 1930's and many of the poems in "Residence on Earth" were written in Sri Lanka. Arthur C. Clarke the author of "2001 Space Odessey" is another writer who lives on the island. One of his novels "The Fountains of Paradise" is based in Sri Lanka and also describes the the historical site of Sigirya. Sigiriya, the Lion Fortress, is a UNESCO world heritage site, and is an early example of landscaped pleasure garden, fresoces and a palace atop a sheer rock, all built during 477-495 AD.

It is also interesting to note that Sri Lanka, throughout its history never endorsed slavery nor were they used during the colonial times. This is not to say that things were always equal or easy. In feudal times, the non-landholders "owed" their lord a certain amount of compulsory labor. Also, in ancient times the caste system prescribed the duties and positions of most people in society.

The Caste System in Sri Lanka

The Sinhalese kingdom at Anuradhapura was in many ways typical of other ancient hydraulic societies because it lacked a rigid, authoritarian and heavily bureaucratic structure. Theorists have attributed Anuradhapura's decentralized character to its feudal basis, which was, however, a feudalism unlike that found in Europe. The institution of caste formed the basis of social stratification in ancient Sinhalese society and determined a person's social obligation, and position within the hierarchy.

The caste system in Sri Lanka developed its own characteristics. Although it shared an occupational role with its Indian prototype, caste in Sri Lanka developed neither the exclusive Brahmanical social hierarchy nor, to any significant degree, the concept of defilement by contact with impure persons or substances that was central to the Indian caste system. The claims of the Kshatriya (warrior caste) to royalty were a moderating influence on caste, but more profound was the influence of Buddhism, which lessened the severity of the institution. The monarch theoretically held absolute powers but was nevertheless expected to conform to the rules of dharma, or universal laws governing human existence and conduct.

Social divisions arose over the centuries between those engaged in agriculture and those engaged in nonagricultural occupations. The Govi (cultivators) belonged to the highest Sinhalese caste (Goyigama) and remained so in the late twentieth century. All Sri Lankan heads of state have, since independence, belonged to the Goyigama caste, as do about half of all Sinhalese. The importance of cultivation on the island is also reflected in the caste structure of the Hindu Tamils, among whom the Vellala (cultivator) is the highest caste.

Historical Background

The first signs of human inhabitants in Sri Lanka date back to the Stone Age, about 1,750000 million years ago. These people are said to have come from the South of India and reached the Island through a land bridge connecting the Indian subcontinent to Sri Lanka named Adams Bridge.

The first major legendary reference to the island is found in the great Indian epic, the Ramayana (Sacred Lake of the Deeds of Rama), thought to have been written around 500 B.C. The Ramayana tells of the conquest of Lanka in 3000 B.C. by Rama, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Rama's quest to save his abducted wife, Sita, from Ravanna, the demon god of Lanka, and his demon hordes, is, according to some scholars, a poetic account of the early southward expansion of Brahmanic civilization.

The most valuable source of knowledge for scholars probing the legends and historical heritage of Sri Lanka is still the Mahavamsa (Great Genealogy or Dynasty), a chronicle compiled in Pali, the language of Theravada Buddhism, in the sixth century. Buddhist monks composed the Mahavamsa, which was an adaptation of an earlier and cruder fourth century epic, the Dipavamsa (Island Genealogy or Dynasty). The latter account was compiled to glorify Buddhism and is not a comprehensive narrative of events. The Mahavamsa, however, relates the rise and fall of successive Buddhist kingdoms beginning with Vijaya, the legendary colonizer of Sri Lanka and primogenitor of the Sinhalese migrant group. In the Mahavamsa, Vijaya is described as having arrived on the island on the day of the Buddha's death (parinibbana) or, more precisely, his nirvana — his release from the cycle of life and pain. The Mahavamsa also lavishes praise on the Sinhalese kings who repulsed attacks by Indian Tamils.

Vijaya is the central legendary figure in the Mahavamsa. He was the grandson of an Indian princess from Vanga in northern India who had been abducted by an amorous lion, Simha, and son of their incestuous and half-leonine offspring. Along with 700 of his followers, Vijaya arrived in Lanka and established himself as ruler with the help of Kuveni, a local demon-worshiping princess. Although Kuveni had betrayed her own people and had given birth to two of Vijaya's children, she was banished by the ruler, who then arranged a marriage with a princess from Madurai in southeastern India. Kuveni's offspring are the folkloric ancestors of the present day Veddahs, an aboriginal people now living in scattered areas of eastern Sri Lanka. Many scholars believe that the legend of Vijaya provides a glimpse into the early settlement of the island. Around the fifth century B.C., the first bands of Sri Lankan colonists are believed to have come from the coastal areas of northern India. The chronicles support evidence that the royal progeny of Vijaya often sought wives from the Pandyan and other Dravidian (Tamil) kingdoms of southern India. The chronicles also tell of an early and constant migration of artisan and mercantile Tamils to Sri Lanka. It was during the 3rd through 5th centuries that Sri Lanka became known to Europeans as a land rich in gems and spices as related by Megasthenes to Alexander the great.

A more detailed history can be found at a site about The People of Sri Lanka...a historical perspective. If you link to this site, to return here close the window by clicking on the X in the upper right corner.

When the Greek empire was expanding in the Mediterranean, and other population centers were emerging from the late stone age, Sri Lanka was a country with a highly developed civilization. In the north-central region of the island there were well planned cities, like Anuradhapura, and Polonnaruwa, linked by an intricate road system. A marvelous irrigation system of man-made reservoirs, linked with wide canals, that are still in use today, provided the essential water to cities as well as farms.

The vast. ruins of the ancient cities of Anaradhapura, Pollonarua, Kalawewa, Mihintale, and Sigiriya, have been pronounced as second only to those in Egypt, and yet to the average home historian none of these are known.

No history of Sri Lanka can be separated from its association with Buddhism. Though there are many legends about how Sri Lanka came to be a civilization separate from India, the ones about the presence of Buddha in several places were the ones recounted by almost every Sri Lankan we met.

The stories begin with Buddah's first visit to Mahiyangana, when, after expelling the Yakkhas or demon inhabitants of the country, he gave to Saman a lock of his hair, which that god enshrined in a sapphire casket. His second visit was to Nagadipa (the Jaffna Peninsula), when Buddha settled a dispute between the Naga princes, Mahodara and Chuladara, concerning a gem-set throne. The third visit was to Kelaniya, where Buddha stayed at the site of the later dagaba: thence he went to Samantakuta or Adam's Peak, on which he set the imprint of his foot, to Dighavapi in the present Eastern Province, and to Anuradhapura, where he sanctified by his presence various sites, including those of the Bo-tree and of the Ruwanweli Dagaba. Anuradhapura itself, according to the legend, had also been hallowed by the visits of the three previous Buddhas of the present age.

It is the profession of Buddhism that has sharply separated Lanka from India and continues to have an abiding influence on the national character.

Religion

Buddhism is the dominant creed of the largest ethnic group, the Singhalese. Approximately 70% of the population belongs to this faith. It plays an extremely important role in the country both spiritually and culturally. Sri Lanka's literature, art and architecture are to a large extent a product of its Buddhist basis. About 15% of the population, mainly Tamils, are Hindu. Muslims and Christians can both be of Sinhalese and Tamil ethnicity that converted.

However, there is much more mixing and melding among religious groups than these census figures would indicate. A Catholic, for example, might very well feel the need to pay his respects to the Hindu god Ganesh in order to ensure he has no obstacles or problems in his path in the course of a particular venture. Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim and Christian Sri Lankan's all venture to some pilgrimage sites. During our travels, there were particular holy sites on bridges and near roads where the driver stopped before crossing to put a coin at the dagoba. These gifts are used to support the monks and their work throughout the country.

Strictly speaking, Buddhism is not a religion, since it is not centered on a god, but is rather a system of philosophy and a code of morality. It covers a wide range of interpretations of the basic beliefs that started with the enlightenment of the Buddha in north India around 2500 years ago. Siddhartha Gautama, born a prince, is said to be the fourth Buddha or 'Enlightened one', and is not expected to be the last. Since Buddhists believe achieving enlightenment is the goal of every being, eventually we will all reach Buddhahood.

The Buddha never wrote his teachings (dharma) down, and a schism later developed so that today there are two major schools of Buddhism. The Theravada or Hinayana, 'doctrine of the elders' or 'small vehicle', school holds that to achieve nirvana, the eventual aim of every Buddhist, you must 'work out your own salvation with diligence'. In contrast, the Mahayana, or 'large vehicle', school holds that its belief is enough eventually to encompass all humankind and bear it to salvation. Theravada Buddhism is practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia; Mahayana Buddhism is followed in Japan, Vietnam and among Chinese Buddhists.

Though Buddhism was not intended to be a religion, it has become one in most of Asia. This is evidenced by the many shrines and temples that have been developed over thousands of years. Everywhere we went there were gifts (usually lotus flowers or handmade items) that were placed upon tables in front of statues of the buddha. In some places, they light candles (similar to catholicism) and offer prayers. In others they believe that merely standing on a sacred site or meditating at a particular spot will bring miracles (barren women will be able to get pregnant, those afflicted with a health problem may be healed.)

There is an interesting division among those in Sri Lanka who practice Buddhism as a moral creed or philosophy and those who practice it as a religion. Those in the former group take seriously their responsibility in the world and in making the world a better place. They do not believe in sudden miracles and they are very solid in their practice of the mediations and daily implementation of their moral code and belief system. Those who practice Buddhism as a religion are like the faithful of most religions around the world. They believe that the world is very mysterious and mostly outside of their control. They believe that somehow these prayers will bring a change in their life and their world. Both groups of Buddhist generally believe in reincarnation -- one is reincarnated after death several times until one reaches in enlightenment. It is believed that if you do not learn all the lessons provided in this life you will come back to learn additional lessons. Final death, after enlightenment, is seen as joyful because you will no longer have to be in the world and go through the struggles of difficulty, hardship, sadness and learning.

Our host professor (a devout Buddhist as a way of life) made an interesting comment about the Buddhist belief system as a way of life and its relationship to the political situation(s) in Sri Lanka. He said that the easy "acceptance" of lifes teaching, particularly of hardship and sorrow, as a part of daily life has probably been the single most important factor to holding back the country from growing and moving forward in the world. He also believed that it was also one of the reasons the internal struggles had gone on so long — because when you accept this as a life lesson it is likely that you will fight it or attempt to change it. This certainly presents an interesting dilemma both politically and in terms of leadership.

The Civil Wars in Sri Lanka

In such a short period of time it is impossible to get the full story of the reasons behind the civil wars. Fortunately for us, the Norwegians had brokered a peace (after 22 years of violent conflict in this latest bout) and there were no problems with Tamils and Sinhalese while we were there. (Though there were two days of curfews due to protests by Muslims and fear of retribution to Muslim mosques by others) Soon after our return to the U.S. we heard that the Tamils and the government had reached an agreement.

Like many conflicts in Asia and the Middle East, the reasons for conflict go back hundreds (if not thousands) of years. In the case of the Tamil and Singhalese a sort of beginning can be traced back to before 1,000 A.D. The Tamils, groups with the backing of India that often ruled Lanka, would cite their "glory days" as beginning in 1,000 A.D. during Raja Raja Cholan’s reign. Thamil Eelam (The Jaffna Kingdom) was part of his extensive empire. The entire island eventually came under Chola rule by 1017 and that rule is maintained (with some skirmishes) until 1070 when the island is reconquered by the Sinhalese, and establishing the capital in Polonaruwa. Though the Sinhalese were back in control of the country they never truly controlled Jaffna.

Through many skirmishes and invasions by various countries, not just India, by around 1200 Jaffna fully established its own kingdom and maintained it for over 400 years, until the Portuguese (with Sinhala mercenaries) took Jaffna and ruled the entire country again from about 1619 to 1658. Though the Portuguese had some control over the island, it was still split into three Kingdoms -- Jaffna, Kandy, and Kotte. In 1658 the Dutch captured the island, but continued to rule Jaffna as a separate kingdom until 1796.

It is in 1796 when the British took over rule of the island that the Tamils (Jaffna) were made a part of what was then called Ceylon. By 1831 the three kingdoms were amalgamated into a single administrative unit. According to Tamil history this is the beginning of the rise in difficulties. When the British left in 1948, giving independence to Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese majority parliament legislated to disenfranchise Tamils of recent Indian origin, and began colonization of Thamil Eelam with Sinhala settlers. (Sounds frighteningly like the situation with Jewish settlers in Palestinian-claimed areas) In 1956 the Sinhala Language was legislated to be the only official language for the entire island. With this, various measures were taken to deny Tamils equal access to education and employment.

From 1957 to 1976 various protests bega among the Tamil. Depending on who is describing the history, the stories of violent or non-violent protests differ. In any case, the use of the government forces is employed. In 1976 all Tamil political parties unite under the leadership of S J V Chelvanayakam QC, to from the Tamil United Federation (TUF) and demand to be separted from Sri Lanka to become a "free, soverign, separate socialist state." Not having their demands met, by 1983 the movement becomes an official "war for independence" under the leadership of Velupillai Pirabakaran and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). It is beginning in 1983 that the violence certainly escalates.

A first attempt at peace talks between the government and the LTTE was launched in 1985, but collapsed in the same year. In 1987, an Indian peacekeeping force, deployed to monitor the situation, ended up leaving in 1989 amid heavy fighting. In 1991, former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was killed in a suicide bombing blamed on the LTTE. Two years later, Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa met the same fate. His successor, Chandrika Kumaratunga—the daughter of two prime ministers, Sirimavo and Solomon Bandaranaike—promised to end the war quickly. But in 1994, peace talks failed again, and Kumaratunga asserted she would be forced to resort to military measures.

Throughout the rest of the 1990s, Tiger bombing campaigns and government offensives followed each other in rapid, vicious succession. Kumaratunga herself was almost killed in a bomb attack during a 1999 election rally. The war continued, and a series of successful LTTE attacks—including one at the strategically important Elephant Pass in 2000 and a suicide bombing on Sri Lanka’s international airport the next year—shook popular confidence in the government’s military approach. Kumaratunga’s government was forced from office.

In December 2002, the cease-fire between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Tigers) marked its one-year anniversary—a milestone in the history of the two-decade-old "war for independence" conflict. The killings that have marked this conflict (approximately 60,000 lives have been lost so far) have largely subsided. The two sides are focusing on issues that almost guarantee a compromise, such as de-mining, rehabilitation of the north and east, and dealing with internally displaced persons. Both sides have demonstrated the political will to reach a peaceful compromise. In December, at peace talks in Norway, the government and rebels agreed to share power. Under the deal, minority Tamils will have autonomy in the mainly Tamil-speaking north and east.

Maggie McVay Lynch
Last Updated: December 24, 2002