NSI Script: Day 4-5
- be sure attendance sheet is passed around.
Journal Starters:
"For what a man had rather were true he more readily believes. Therefore he rejects difficult things from impatience of research; sober things, because they narrow hope; the deeper things of nature, from superstition; the light of experience, from arrogance and pride; things not commonly believed, out of deference to the opinion of the vulgar. Numberless in short are the ways, and sometimes imperceptible, in which the affections color and infect the understanding." -- Francis Bacon
"There's no such thing as objective truth. We make our own truth. There's no such thing as objective reality. We make our own reality. There are spiritual, mystical, or inner ways of knowing that are superior to our ordinary ways of knowing. If an experience seems real, it is real. If an idea feels right to you, it is right. We are incapable of acquiring knowledge of the true nature of reality. Science itself is irrational or mystical. It's just another faith or belief system or myth, with no more justification than any other. It doesn't matter whether beliefs are true or not, as long as they're meaningful to you." -- a summary of New Age beliefs from Theodore Schick, Jr. and Lewis Vaughn in "How to Think about Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age."
"Education is the ability to listen to almost anything without losing your temper or your self-confidence." -- Robert Frost
Do you think pseudo-science presents a serious threat to society? If so, how could we best fight it?
Why do you think pseudosciences are so popular? What do they offer that science doesn't?
Do you think the earth has ever been visited by aliens? Why or why not?
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Finish funding presentations. (Starting with questions to cancer group).
Debrief on this - what are some criteria we should use to decide what projects are supported with limited resources? (greatest good for given resources, intellectual curiosity, harmful consequences,...)
- trade-offs are always necessary - we cannot do everything that would be good to do.
Reading from Feynman: In this essay he addresses some ideas about pros and cons of science, so a good way to focus some of the thinking we came up with. Feel free to interrupt with questions or comments as I read through this.
- 10 min (allow 30 min max)
(break)
Pseudoscience
The following is taken from Stephen Carey's "A Beginner's Guide to Scientific Method:"
Pseudo-Science: A field which mimics the methods of science and claims an equal right to make knowledge claims. (Science has attained a certain success and "respectability," so it's often in the interest of proponents of certain ideas to try to give these ideas the status of a science.)
Fallacy: Drawing a conclusion that one is not logically entitled to based on the available evidence. There's a difference between fallacious scientific reasoning and a mistaken scientific belief. You can have a scientific theory that is wrong, but is logically consistent with the information available at the time. As long as there's not a breakdown in the logic, there's no fallacy. Science works by learning new things as new information becomes available.
(overhead)
Generally, can detect fallacies by asking yourself the following questions:
1. What precisely are the facts of the case?
2. If an explanation is required, have we carefully considered all plausible rival explanations prior to proposing a novel explanation?
3. If a novel explanation is required, can we devise an effective test for its correctness?
Science CAN accept really wild theories (relativity and quantum mechanics are examples of that), but extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. We don't simply believe something because we'd like to or because it sounds cool.
Fallacies Involving Initial Observations:
1. anecdotal evidence--founded on memorable, but atypical cases (ex. Someone seems to often call when you're thinking about them. Is this ESP? No...you just forget all the times you think about them and they don't call or the times when they call when you weren't thinking about them. Another ex: machines breaking down at the worst possible times.)
2. omitting facts--crop circles in England--large geometric figures in wheat and corn fields. No sign of human intrusion--no footprints or bent plans. Don't talk about indentations by tractors that people could walk in. Makes phenomenon appear more mysterious than it is.
3. distorting the facts--over-generalization
Fallacies Involving Rival Explanations:
1. fallacious argument by elimination--may be other explanations that you haven't considered. ESP--ESP or sheer luck.
2. fallacious inference to a causal link--may be simple correlation, may be other causal factors involved (ex. May see a correlation between income and the need for reading glasses. This doesn't mean that making a high income causes your eyesight to worsen. As people get older, they generally make more money and are also more likely to need reading glasses.)
Fallacies in Proposing and Testing Explanations:
1. exploiting analogies and similarities--astrology ex., w/ moon influencing tides and sunspot activity influencing radio transmissions...a good way to come up with explanations, but not to defend them
2. proposing unfalsifiable explanations--fate, conspiracy theory (reason that there is no evidence to support can be explained because of the conspiracy--turning evidence around..vindicate their theories by the very facts that occasioned them) Explain F by reference to T and then claim that F constitutes independent evidence that T is so. Seem to provide simple and elegant explanation of a number of apparently unrelated by puzzling facts, but no evidence that they are TRUE.
3. making unfalsifiable (or vague) predictions--astrology example. "Making a significant trip within the next 6 months." or "The stars impel, but don't compel."
3. illicit ad hoc rescues--explanation of failure of a test that cannot itself be tested..example of psychic and "shyness effect"
Some general comments about science and pseudo-science:
1. science tends to be self-correcting, pseudo-science does not--journal is powerful tool in this area
2. pseudo-science produces very little theory--pseudo-science research almost always produces extraordinary claims about fantastic abilities and events, but not much else. No explanation for how something like ESP would work. (no underlying MODEL through which it might make sense - interesting to note that, in this sense, you might say that astrology WAS a science a few hundred years ago - it had an underlying model of the universe in which it made sense).
3. science embraces skepticism; pseudo-science views skepticism as narrow-mindedness - typically if something is a science, criticism is welcome - in pseudoscience, you're likely to be accused of hostility or narrow-mindedness if you dare to question the ideas of the proponent
Have the students read the "Count Me In" advertisement for numerology. Ask them what makes the article believable, and what makes them skeptical.
What makes it believable:
writer claims to have been a skeptic who was won over
suggests great improvements to personal and professional life when numerology used
makes it sound scientific: "the perfect test," "science of numbers," refers to mathematician Pythagoras
makes Goodwin sounds like an authority figure: "nationally recognized numerologist," "expert," "author," "MIT graduate"
chooses a computer programmer (technical person) as an ex. of someone who benefited from numerology
What makes one skeptical:
assistant who worked for Goodwin in the architectural firm saw the resumes of the people she recommended or didn't recommend--she wasn't just using numerology
numerology has been around for a long time, but there's no theory, no progress which would characterize a legitimate science
the advice is common sense
The students pointed out that with a person's full name, birthdate, and mailing address, a lot could probably be found out a person which could make the numerology profiles sounds convincing (even though the info didn't come from numerology).
No model - why in the world should these numbers have anything to do with events in your life?
Next time watch video, analyze science/pseudoscience issue in more detail.
(mention assignment is in your packet, if you want to start thinking about it - more details on Tues.)
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Notes on "Kidnapped by UFOs? The true story of alien abductions"
(NOVA video: http://www.wgbh.org)
** Ask the students what makes the stories believable and what makes them skeptical about the stories.
Arguments For:
1. large number of detailed stories with great consistency, told with great sincerity (use the stories themselves as their principal proof)
2. people from all walks of life--any psychological problems blamed on the trauma from the abduction experience (example of what seems like a normal, well-off family--Hopkins likes this example!)
3. no physical evidence because the aliens remove before they are discovered; no memory before hypnosis because aliens try to "block" memory (unfalsifiable)
4. Harvard professor supports, had to be actively convinced (claims that he had initial skepticism)
5. no other reasonable explanation for why there would be so many stories (proof by elimination)
6. physical word vs. other realms world--not fair to insist that physical world evidence be provided (unfalsifable)
Other Reasons for Abductees to Believe:
1. desire to feel special--get sympathy and attention...people in support group get praised when the "remember" things about their abduction experience that fits the established pattern
2. explanation of vague feelings of unease, imperfections
Arguments Against:
1. copy cat nature of stories--increase significantly after recent reports of abductions, movies involving aliens, etc. Jody didn't think her kids were being abducted until she read Bud's book
2. aliens look suspiciously human-like, although there's no reason to think they should
3. incidents occur at night, between sleep and consciousness...human have a well documented ability to have very vivid dreams, partial paralysis, etc.
4. humans very susceptible to suggestion (lost in shopping mall example)--even more susceptible under hypnosis, which is where most of the details of the stories came out.
5. seemed to ignore data that wouldn't support hypothesis and interpreted other data in a narrow way: examples with kids
6. no physical evidence, in ANY of the reported cases
Other thoughts: Scientists DO want to believe, but won't unless sufficient evidence. Curious that scientists seem to think that contact with aliens would be positive, while abductees talked about it like a very negative experience.
The Dangers of Pseudo-Science:
1. Can mislead people in their search for meaning and direction. Pseudo-sciences can be used to make excuses for people, explaining away things that they really need to address (like in the alien video).
2. Decisions are made based on an a myth, not on reason. May base decision whether to attack a foreign country based on a psychic's suggestion.
3. Can affect our relationships with one another. May treat someone differently because of their astrological sign. May give someone authority, power, and respect that they do not deserve.
4. Can endanger our physical well-being, when applied to medicine or when we count on pseudo-science to solve a problem for us.
5. Wastes resources (both human and material); detracts from what main-stream science and engineering can do.
To fight pseudo-sciences, it's important to understand why people are drawn to them. All too often, people either laugh off pseudo-sciences or get into heated arguments where each side is fighting on a different level. The scientist may be arguing about the facts, while the pseudo-science supporter is defending a deep need. Pseudo-sciences can make us feel special or in control of things. (note the difference in science web sites vs. pseudoscience ones - pseudoscience sites usually much more personal, offer more "meaning") They offer an escape from boredom and sometimes offer a whole community to go with them. They offer definite answers to questions that are very important to us, like what happens when we die? They may offer hope, particularly in the case of pseudo-science related to medicine. To argue against pseudo-science most effectively, it's important to identify the underlying need that is involved and to try to address that as well as laying out the facts. (ex. of astrology and control, free will vs. determinism)
Comments on Assignment:
After the class on pseudo-science last year, about half the class said in their journals that they believed in at least one of the three topics that I've listed here.
1. You can pick any of these 3 topics, but I'd like to encourage you to choose the one that has the most personal meaning to you. If you believe in one of these, pick that one. If you don't believe in any of the three, but you know someone who believes in one, pick that one.
2. Because I want to encourage you to write on the topic that you believe in (if any), I want to assure you that I will not grade you down if you reach a different conclusion than mine. I will grade you on your ability to present both sides of the story and your thoughtfulness on the question of why you believe what you believe. (In fact, there is a right or wrong answer to whether these fields are pseudo-science... (note this may not mean that they're not TRUE, just that they don't count as SCIENCES ) it's not just a matter of opinion. If you took reasonable, logical-minded people who had all the evidence and looked at that evidence objectively, I'm convinced that they would come to the same conclusion.)
3. There's quite a bit of reading that you could do on these topics. I don't expect you to become an expert on these areas or to read every bit of every link on the Web site that I've given you. You're asked to extract the "main arguments" for whether the fields should be considered a pseudo-science or not. You should feel free to skim the articles and extract information from the parts that are most useful to you.
4. You are welcome to use other resources, but you won't be expected to. If you believe in the validity of one of these fields, you may very well have other resources on-hand. Just remember to present BOTH sides.
5. Use footnotes or endnotes to indicate your references. Don't just list the references at the end. Format does not matter--just be sure to include enough information so that your reader could easily look up the reference.
6. Remember that the due date is firm. I won't accept late papers, regardless of the reason. Tell them about the Writing Center as a resource. Ask anyone who doesn't know how to use the Web to stay after class, so you can show them.
(Go over any comments about specific web sites.)
Plagiarism: ( I assume there won't be a problem with this with anyone in here, but it has come up before, so let me just say a few words to make sure everyone is aware of plagiarism and knows how to avoid it.)
"To steal and use (the ideas or writings of another) as one's own. To appropriate passages or ideas from and use them as one's own."
--American Heritage Dictionary
One form of plagiarism is simply to neglect to list the references you used in writing your paper. Another is to copy things from the reference without using quotation marks, whether or not you cite the reference.
Different degrees of plagiarism (copying, but changing a word or two, copying one sentence in a paragraph that's otherwise written in your own words, etc.). Rule of thumb: Assuming that the information or ideas you are presenting could be expected to be found from more than one source, if I could tell, beyond a reasonable doubt, exactly which resource you used (without the benefit of a citation), you'd be plagiarizing.
Why do we care? In the vast majority of cases, plagiarism isn't just against the accepted academic code of ethics, it's against the law. (Almost everything is copyrighted, implicitly or explicitly.) Even in those rare cases when material isn't copyrighted, plagiarism is considered unacceptable in the academic world because it defeats the purpose of the assignment. When you plagiarize, you're not deciding for yourself what ideas to include and what to leave out and how to present them. You're not working on your writing skills. You're not learning anything.
I will treat plagiarism as a very serious offense. It's easier to catch than you might think. If you have any questions or concerns about whether something would be considered plagiarism, please see me.